Page:The American Cyclopædia (1879) Volume XI.djvu/496

478 MEXICO tralized government, which they pronounced a usurpation, induced Santa Anna to march against them in the beginning of 1836 with an army, which was defeated and annihilated at San Jacinto, April 21, the Mexican president himself being taken prisoner. In the previous month a convention of delegates assembled at the town of Washington had declared Texas an independent republic. The captivity of Santa Anna threw Mexico again into confusion. Bus- tamante, who had returned from exile, became president April 19, 1837; but in the latter part of his term the power was virtually in the hands of Santa Anna, who, after a visit to Presi- dent Jackson at Washington, had been sent back to Mexico in a United States ship of war in 1837. He held office as revolutionary provis- ional president from March to July, 1839, when Nicolas Bravo became president for a week. A long period of confusion followed, during which the constitution was suspended, and the government became a dictatorship, at the head of which were alternately Santa Anna, Bravo, and Canalizo (the two last as substitutes du- ring the frequent absences of the first), from Oct. 10, 1841, to June 4, 1844. Constitu- tional government was resumed in 1844, with Santa Anna as president, under a constitu- tion promulgated June 12, 1843. He was de- posed and banished by a revolution, and was succeeded, Sept. 20, 1844, by Canalizo, who was deposed by a revolution in December. His successor, Herrera, was also driven from office by a revolution, Dec. 30, 1845. During his administration war commenced with the United States, in consequence of the annexa- tion of Texas to the American Union. Her- rera was succeeded by Gen. Paredes. In May, 1846, Gen. Taylor crossed the Rio Grande, and after a series of engagements in which the American arms were uniformly successful, Santa Anna, who had returned from exile, re- gained the presidency, and taken personal com- mand of the army, was completely overthrown. By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in February, 1848, the war was ended, and Cali- fornia and New Mexico were ceded to the United States. Santa Anna again left the country, but after the new administration of Herrera, and that of Arista, he was recalled in 1853, and' was for the fifth time elevated to the presidency, though for a short season only ; for having attempted to secure the office for life with the right to appoint at his death his own successor, he was deposed in August, 1855, by a revolution under Alvarez, governor of Guerrero, who was at once appointed to take his place. The latter resigned in favor of Comonfort in December of the same year, and a series of revolutions ensued, chiefly in- stigated by the so-called church party, whom the president made his implacable enemies by a law recommended by him and adopted in June, 1856, for the sale of the church lands and the freedom of religious belief. In March, 1857, a new and very democratic constitution was promulgated by congress, and Comonfort was constrained to accept it; but, owing to strenuous opposition from the church party, it did not come into operation till May. Mean- time the repudiation of an acknowledged debt to Spain seemed likely to involve the republic in a war with that power ; the president sought in vain for aid from the United States, and conspiracies multiplied on every side. Comon- fort, although confirmed in the presidency un- der the new constitution in September, an- nounced in December a change of government and of constitution ; and in January, 1858, he was superseded by Zuloaga, who for a while had been his supporter, and was forced to take refuge in the United States. Zuloaga was im- mediately opposed by Benito Juarez, who, as chief justice of the supreme court, was by the provisions of the constitution the late presi- dent's lawful successor. Juarez was defeated ; but he went to Vera Cruz, and there established himself as constitutional president on May 4. Zuloaga was constrained to abdicate in favor of Miguel Miramon, his own general-in-chief, Jan. 1, 1859. Miramon, a successful soldier rather than a good statesman, relied solely upon the fortune of arms for the subjection of Vera Cruz. Leaving Zuloaga as provisional president, he set out upon a series of cam- paigns, which terminated in that of Calpulal- pam and the triumphal entry of Juarez into the capital on Jan. 11, 1861. Much of Juarez's success was due to the recognition of him as the head of the government by the United States. While still at Vera Cruz he began the series of reforms which rendered his admin- istration so popular on the one hand, but on the other paved the way for foreign invasion. Among them stand most prominent the making marriage a civil contract, the abolition of per- petual monastic vows and of ecclesiastical tri- bunals, the suppression of monasteries, and the appropriation of church property to the ser- vice of the state, the total value of which was estimated at rather more than $300,000,000, or nearly one half the value of all the landed property in the country. These measures were soon followed by the complete separation of church and state. But the church party had re- solved upon the destruction of Juarez's govern- ment, although national liberty should be sacri- ficed for its accomplishment. A favorable op- portunity soon offered. Spain, France, and England urged claims for the reparation of injuries and losses alleged to have been sus- tained by their subjects resident in Mexico; and no satisfaction having been obtained from Juarez, he was informed that a joint expedi- tion from the three powers would be sent to de- mand it, a measure agreed upon by the conven- tion of London, Oct. 31, 1861. In December Vera Cruz was occupied by Spanish troops from Cuba, commanded by Gen. Prim, and in Jan- uary, 1862, by French and British forces. But it was soon discovered that the English and Spanish claims could be settled by negotiation ;