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O'CALLAGHAN science and practice may be mentioned the application of auscultation to obstetrics; a more perfect knowledge of the mechanism of labor, and of the management of placenta prce- ma ; the introduction of anaesthetics ; the in- duction of premature labor ; an increased fre- quency in the use of the forceps, and a less fre- quent resort to craniotomy ; and the substitu- tion of version in cases where either craniotomy or the long forceps were formerly employed. O'CALLAGHAJV, Edmund Bailey, an American author, born in Mallow, county Cork, Ireland, about 1804. After residing two years in Pa- ris, he went in 1823 to Quebec, where he was admitted to the practice of medicine in 1827. From 1834 to 1837 he edited the "Montreal Vindicator," and in 1836 he was a member of the assembly of Lower Canada. He removed to New York in 1837, received the honorary degree of M. D. from the university of St. Louis, Mo., in 1846, and subsequently that of LL. D. from St. John's college, Fordham. He was keeper of the historical manuscripts in the office of the secretary of state at Alba- ny from 1848 to 1870, when he returned to New York. During his residence in Albany he translated several volumes of the Dutch rec- ords in the secretary of state's office. His principal publications are : " History of New Netherland" (2 vols. 8vo, 1845-'8) ; "Jesuit Relations of Discoveries " (1847) ; " Docu- mentary History of New York " (4 vols. 4to, 1849-'51); "Documents relating to the Co- lonial History of New York" (11 vols. 4to, 1855-'61); " Commissary Wilson's Orderly Book" (1857) ; " Orderly Book of Gen. John Burgoyne" (I860); "Journals of the Legis- lative Councils of New York " (2 vols.), and " Origin of the Legislative Assemblies of the State of New York" (1861) ; "A List of the Editions of the Holy Scriptures and parts thereof printed in' America previous to 1860" (1861); "The Register of New Netherland, 1626-'74;" "Voyages of the Slavers St. John and Arms," and "Voyage of George Clarke to America " (1867) ; " Historical Manuscripts relating to the War of the Revolution " (2 vols., 1868) ; " Laws and Ordinances of New Nether- land, 1638-74 "(1869). OCCAM, or Ockham, William of, an English scholastic philosopher, born at Occam in Sur- rey about 1270, died in Munich, April 7, 1347. He was of humble parentage, was educated at Merton college, Oxford, and was appointed in 1302 first prebendary of Bedford, and in 1305 of Stowe. On the controversy between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII. he opposed the Eretensions of the pope. In 1319 he resigned is livings and became a Franciscan monk. He was sent to Paris to complete his studies under Duns Scotus, his old master at Oxford, whose most formidable adversary he afterward be- came. Having obtained his doctor's degree, he taught theology with such success as to win the appellation of "the invincible doctor," and subsequently was a strenuous adversary of the OCEAN 571 papal claims of sovereignty over secular prin- ces. In 1322, in the general Franciscan chap- ter assembled at Perugia, he argued against Pope John XXII. that Christian priests nei- ther individually nor in community should be the possessors of property. His manifesto, entitled Disputatio super Potestate Ecclesias- tica Prcelatis atque Principibus Terrarum commissa, was condemned by the pope; but, supported by Michael of Cesena, general of his order, he continued to assail the practices of the holy see. In the same year he was ap- pointed provincial of the Franciscans in Eng- land, and while there advocated his anti-papal doctrines with still greater freedom. Sum- moned with his disciples in 1327 by Pope John XXII. before the court of Avignon, he fled to the court of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, where he remained till his death. In his age he was the champion of the Franciscans and the nominalists against the Dominicans and the realists. His philosophical and theological writings are : Quodlibeta Septem (Paris, 1487; Strasburg, 1491) ; Summa totius Logices, or Tractates Logices in tres paries dimsus (Paris, 1488; Venice, 1591 ; Oxford, 1675); Quces- tiones in Libros Physicorum (Strasburg, 1491 and 1506) ; Qucestiones et Decisiones in quatuor Libros Sententiarum (Lyons, 1495) ; Centilo- ffium Theologicum (Lyons, 1496) ; Expositio Aurea super tota Arte Vetere (Bologna, 1496) ; Opus nonaginta Dierum contra Errores Joan- nis XXII de Utili Dominio Rerum Ecclesiasti- carum (Lyons, 1495 and 1496, and also in Gol- dast's MonarcMa Romani Imperil, 3 vols. fol., Hanover, 1611-'14) ; and the above mentioned Disputatio (Paris, 1598, and in the Monarchia). OCCOM, Samson, an Indian preacher, born at Mohegan, New London co., Conn., about 1723, died at New Stockbridge, N. Y., in July, 1792. When 19 years old he entered the Indian school of Mr. Wheelock at Lebanon, and remained there four years. In 1748 he kept a school in New London, but shortly after removed to Montauk, Long Island, where he taught and preached. In 1766 Mr. Wheelock sent him to England as an agent for Moor's Indian charity school. Being the first Indian preacher who had visited that country, he attracted large au- diences and obtained gifts. He wrote an account of the Montauk Indians, still in manuscript. OCEAN, the great body of salt water which surrounds the continents and covers more than three fifths of the whole surface of the globe. By the configuration of the lands which rise above its surface, it is partially separated into g- number of divisions, known by distinct names, as the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic oceans, which are separately treat- ed, the last two in the article POLAR SEAS. The Antarctic is divided from the adjoining oceans, not by intervening bodies of land, but by the imaginary line of the Antarctic circle. The nearly landlocked arms of the ocean are designated as seas, bays, and gulfs. All these bodies of water are united together in one