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688 ORFORD ORGAN member of the academy of sciences. In 1816 he was nominated a physician to Louis XVIII., in 1819 appointed professor of medical juris- prudence in the faculty of medicine, in 1823 professor of chemistry, and in 1831 dean of that faculty. In 1832 he was chosen a member of the general council of hospitals in Paris, subsequently a member of the general council of the department of the Seine, and in 1834 one of the council of public instruction. As a toxicologist he was without a rival. He or- ganized the clinical hospital, and established a new botanic garden, the museum of patho- logical anatomy styled musee Dupuytren, and the Orfila gallery of comparative anatomy. In 1851 he was elected president of the academy of medicine, and in his will he left to that so- ciety and to six other public institutions the sum of 121,000 francs. Perhaps the most origi- nal of his works is his Traite de toxicologie, which was successively improved until the fifth edition (2 vols. 8vo, 1852). He also published Elements de chimie appliquee d la medecine (1817 ; 8th ed., 2 vols., 1851), and Traite des exhumations juridiques (2 vols., 1831), which was afterward merged in the Traite de mede- cine legale (1823-'5 ; 4th ed., 3 vols., 1848). He left memoirs of his life which have not yet been published. His contributions to period- icals have been collected and edited by Dr. Beaufort, under the title Recherches medico- legales et therapeutiques sur Vempoisonnement par Vacide arsenieux, precedees d?une histoire de Varsenic metallique (Paris, 1841). ORFORD, Earls of. See WALPOLE. ORGAN (G-r. dpyavov, an instrument), a name applied to several musical instruments closely allied in construction and principle, but more distinctly to the church and concert hall organ, a wind instrument having a great number of pipes of different lengths and sizes, from which sounds are produced by the admission (as de- termined by keys and stops moved by the per- former) of compressed air conveyed to them along various channels from a bellows. The organ ^ugab) mentioned in Genesis (iv. 21) was probably nearly identical with the syrinx or pipe of Pan among the Greeks, consisting of a number of pipes placed together in ranks, according to their succession of tones, and sounded by the mouth. An instrument similar to the Pandean pipe was used by the inhabi- tants of various parts of Asia, and by almost all semi-barbarous nations. The number of the tubes or reeds as seen on ancient monu- ments varies from seven to eleven. At what periods any considerable enlargement or im- provement in organ building began is not cer- tainly known. Ctesibius in the latter half of the 3d century B. 0. invented a hydraulic organ, the Jiydraulicon. A pneumatic organ is also mentioned by some ancient writers. The distinction between these organs is in the manner of supplying air to the pipes. Mersenne describes an organ carved on an ancient monu- ment in the Mattei gardens at Rome, distantly resembling in form, and in the operation of the keys and the bellows, those of the present day. St. Augustine, commenting on the 56th Psalm, alludes to an instrument inflated by bellows. Pope Vitalian is related to have first introduced organs into some of the churches of western Europe, about 670 ; but the earliest trustwor- thy account is that of the one sent as a pres- ent by the Greek emperor Constantine Copro- nymus to Pepin, king of the Franks, in 755. Organs were common in England before the 10th century, and are said to have exceeded in size and compass those of the continent. The largest was obtained by Elfeg, bishop of Win- chester, in 951, for his cathedral. They were still very rude in construction and of limited capacity. The keys were broad and large, and were struck with the fist; the pipes were of brass, and harsh in tone. In the 12th century the compass of these organs did not exceed 12 or 15 tones. About this time semi-tones were introduced at Venice. In some of the rude in- struments of the same period a plan of con- cords was so arranged that each key called forth not only its own tone, but also, by oth- er pipes, its octave and 12th above. William of Malmesbury mentions an organ in playing which a wind, "forced out by the violence of boiling water, passing through brass pipes," sent forth musical tones ; a device which would seem to have partially anticipated the harsh steam organ, or " Calliope," invented in the United States. Pedals, or foot keys, were added to the organ by Bernhard, a German, in 1470 ; and in the same century the instru- ment reached substantially its present form. Among famous builders, the earliest were the family of Antegnati of Brescia, in the 15th and 16th centuries, and after these Serassi of Ber- gamo and Callido of Venice in the 18th century. In England very few instruments escaped the organoclasts in 1641; at the restoration few eminent builders survived, and foreign artists were called in. The organ is divided interiorly into four parts, the great, the choir, the swell, and the pedal organ. Some instruments have a fifth or solo organ, while in rare instances there is a sixth or echo. The structural portions of an organ are: 1, the apparatus for collecting and distributing the wind; 2, the mechanism controlling the keys and stops ; and 3, the pipes. The force of wind necessary for blowing the organ is ascertained by the anemometer or wind gauge, consisting of a glass tube bent after the manner of that in a barometer, the lower end being fixed into a socket, the other open to the atmosphere. Church organs with- out the pneumatic lever are usually voiced to a weight of wind of from two and a half to three inches. The pedal stops, when supplied by a separate bellows, are usually voiced to a wind a quarter or half an inch stronger than the above, which accelerates the speech and im- proves the tone of the large pipes. The ten- dency, however, is constantly toward voicing instruments to higher pressures for the sake