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32 PANAMA San Bias, in the latter of which are the isl- ands forming the Mulatas archipelago, Limon or Navy bay, and the Chiriqui lagoon. The chief ports are Puerto Escoces in Caledonia bay, San Bias, Portobello, Colon or Aspinwall in Limon bay, and Chiriqui. On the Pacific coast the bay of Panama makes an indenta- tion about 110 m. deep and 122 m. wide at its mouth. Its W. coast is formed by the pen- insula of Azuero, which extends S. E. from the mainland about 75 m. There are many islands in the bay, the principal of which are the Pearl islands. At its N. extremity are the city and port of Panama, and on its E. coast is the gulf of San Miguel, which contains a good port. There are also several smaller ports on the W. coast. Beyond the peninsula of Azue- ro the coast of the isthmus is broken by the bay of Monti jo, which contains several islands. The largest of these, Coiba, has an area of 180 sq. m., and contains the port of Damas. From the Atlantic coast the isthmus appears to be traversed through its entire length by a range of high mountains, the continuation of the Andes, but surveys have proved that in some parts the elevation does not exceed 300 ft. above the level of the sea. From this divi- ding ridge about 150 streams flow into the At- lantic, and more than twice as many into the Pacific. The largest of these is the river Tui- ra, which rises in the sierra on the borders of Cauca, and empties into the gulf of San Mi- guel ; it is 162 m. long, and is navigable for barges for 102 m. The Chagres, which falls into the Caribbean sea a little W. of Limon bay, is navigable by bongos for about 30 m. The Chepo, after a W. N. W. course of about 75 m., turns S. and empties into the bay of Panama. Among the minerals of Panama are gold, mercury, copper, iron, salt, gypsum, lime, and coal. The product of the gold mines once considerable, as is attested by the ancient name of the isthmus, Castilla de Oro, and by the large quantities of the metal formerly ex- tracted from the huacas of Chiriqui is now insignificant, being probably less than $100,- 000 annually. Coal is mined in Bocas del Toro and other places. There are several ther- mal springs, and salt is an important product. The climate is very hot on the coasts ; on the flanks of the mountains in the interior it is relatively cool, but miasmatic fevers prevail everywhere. The seasons are the wet and the dry, the former lasting from May to Decem- ber inclusive ; July, August, and September are the hottest months. Nearly all the vege- table products of the torrid zone grow luxuri- antly, and much of the surface is covered with dense forests, in which are found many of the most valuable kinds of timber, dye, cabinet, and medicinal woods, and shrubs. Codazzi enumerates 55 varieties of fruit trees. Con- spicuous among the trees are the giant cedars and the palms, among the latter of which are the wine, sago, ivory, glove, cabbage, and cocoa palms. In the rainy season, when the blossoming trees are festooned with flowering vines and epiphytes, the forests are magnifi- cent almost beyond description. The fauna corresponds with that of the lower Magdalena valley, excepting the monkeys and parrots, which are not equalled in variety and number elsewhere N. of the forests of the Amazon. Taboga island in the bay of Panama is noted for the number and great size of the turtles found there. The Pearl islands were once celebrated for their pearl fisheries, but the oysters are now nearly exhausted, and in 1874 the fishing was prohibited by law for a term of years. Agriculture is very backward, and not more than one tenth of the surface is cultivated. Maize and rice are the principal grains ; coffee, cacao, tobacco, and sugar cane are raised for home consumption ; cotton is indigenous and perennial, and the indigo plant grows spontaneously. Manufacturing indus- try is limited to the production of cloth and grass hammocks, coarse linen, grass hats and knapsacks, pack saddles, matting, tiles, small boats, sails, soap, and a few other articles. Among the products exported are cocoanuts, cocoanut oil, bananas, caoutchouc, and tor- toise shells. The foreign trade is carried on principally through the ports of Panama and Aspinwall, the termini of the Panama rail- way. As no official accounts are kept, the commerce proper of the isthmus cannot be dis- tinguished from the transit trade. The lat- ter amounts to the estimated annual value of $50,000,000, about two thirds of which rep- resents that from the Pacific to the Atlantic. The only railway is that from Panama to As- pinwall, 47i m. long, which is owned and con- trolled by an American company. It was be- gun in 1850, and on Jan. 28, 1855, the first train passed over it. Its cost was $7,500,000. The finest work on the road is the iron bridge over the Chagres, which is 625 ft. long and 40 ft. above the water, and cost $500,000. The only advantages reserved from the railway company by the government are 3 per cent, of its net revenues, and $10,000 annually as a compensation for the free transit of all foreign mails. In connection with the railway are lines of steamers between Aspinwall and New York, and Panama and San Francisco ; and other lines, British, French, and Chilian, touch at one or the other of these ports. All the ports are now free. A submarine cable con- necting Aspinwall and Kingston, Jamaica, was broken in 1872, and has not yet (1875) been repaired. A cable from Valparaiso to Pana- ma, touching at the principal intermediate ports, is projected. Public education is begin- ning to receive attention. At the commence- ment of 1874 there were no public schools, but before its close there were 16, well attended. The isthmus was formerly divided into the provinces of Azuero, Chiriqui, Panama, and Veragua, but in 1865 the several provinces were formed into the state of Panama, of which each now constitutes a department.