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94 TYPE smaller than the 'size following it. The dis- tances between the sizes are irregular, but the dimensions of the bodies are in proper correla- tion. (See FEINTING, vol. xiii., p. 847.) The matrices and moulds of the first printers were always made by goldsmiths and mechanicians, but the printers cast the types. As early as 1550 type founding was made a business en- tirely distinct from printing. Although types are now cast by machinery, and with improved appliances, the more important tools used in making them (the punch, matrix, and mould) are substantially the same as those used in the 15th century. Attempts have been made repeat- edly to cast many types by one operation in multiple moulds, or to cut them like nails out of cold metal, but they have failed chiefly through the inability to secure accuracy of body. As the required accuracy can be produced only by casting types in an adjustable mould, it may be assumed that the inventor of the type mould was the inventor of typography. The literal translation of a tablet put up at Mentz in 1507 says that John Gutenberg was the first to make printing letters in brass. Engravings made by Amman at Frankfort in 15G4, and by Moxon at London in 1683, prove that the old method of casting types by hand was that used by all type founders at the beginning of this century. The first important improvement in hand cast- ing was made in 1811 by Archibald Binney of Philadelphia, who attached a spring lever to the matrix of the hand mould, giving it an automatic return movement which enabled the type caster to double his old performance. In 1834 David Bruce of New York attached a hand force pump to the mould, which was of great value in the casting of large types, and gave a new impetus to the making of orna- mental letters. William M. Johnson of Hemp- stead, Long Island, invented in 1828 a type- casting machine, which was used for some years by Elihu White of New York; but it was finally abandoned on account of the po- rousness of the types made by it. In 1838 David Bruce, jr., patented the machine which is the basis of most of those now used in America and Europe. The making of matrices by the electrotype process instead of by punch- ing (a process of some value in the reproduc- tion of matrices from types, or engravings in wood or soft metal) is the only recent improve- ment which has been generally adopted. Types were first made in the United States by Chris- topher Sower of Germantown, Pa., about 1735. He cast several fonts in German and English for himself, and perhaps for others, and the anvil on which he forged his matrices of cop- per is still to be seen at Germantown. Sower, a publisher of books, was prevented from printing the Bible in English by the patent then held by the university of Oxford. As there was no patent on the Bible in German he undertook this enterprise, making types, ink and paper for the purpose, and published the nrst German edition of the book in Amer- ica (4to, 1743). Christopher Sower, jr., con- tinued the business, but neither he nor his father can fairly be considered as type founders to the trade. Their type-founding material was bought by Binney and Ronaldson of Phila- delphia in 1798, who were materially aided by a grant of $5,000 from the state of Pennsyl- vania, and by the use of type-founding imple- ments bought by Franklin when he was min- ister at Paris. Mitchelson, a Scotchman, made types in Boston in 1768, but soon abandoned the business. In 1769 Abel Buell of Killing- worth, a silversmith, petitioned the assembly of Connecticut for money to establish a type foundery. He made types at the Sandemanian meeting house in New Haven, but with no benefit to himself or to the printers. William Wing of Hartford, in 1805, made unsuccessful attempts to cast types in conjoined moulds. His partner, Elihu White, established a type foundery at New York in 1810, and afterward at Buffalo and Cincinnati. Robert Lothian, from Scotland, began to make types at New York in 1806. He failed, but many years after- ward was succeeded by his son George. John Baine, a type founder of Edinburgh, at the close of the revolutionary war established a foundery at Philadelphia. In 1813 the print- ers David and George Bruce, who then had the first stereotype foundery in the United States, began business as type founders. George Bruce won a high reputation as a punch cutter and as a scientific type founder. TYPES, Chemical, a term used to designate the characteristics of chemical substances which are supposed to have an analogous molecular architecture, or are built up of elements which, although unlike, bear a certain relation to each other, by reason of which the materials of one part of the chemical fabric may be replaced by others without altering the general structure. Thus, hydrochloric acid, II Cl, may be taken as a type of the chlorides in general, which may be regarded as derived from it by substitution ; as for example, chloride of potassium, KC1, when the constituents are both monatomic elements; BaCla, in which barium is diatomic, and demands two atoms of chlorine ; and SbClj, in which antimony (stibium) is triatomic, and requires three atoms of chlorine. The history of the development of the theory of types may be briefly stated as follows : Gay- Lussac observed that wax bleached by chlorine gave np oxygen and absorbed an equal volume of chlorine. Dumas observed the same action with regard to oil of turpentine, and from other observations he was led to the conclu- sion that a body containing hydrogen, subject- ed to the action of chlorine, bromine, iodine, or oxygen, takes up an atom of such element for every atom of hydrogen removed. In 1839 he arrived at a " theory of types," which may be enunciated as follows : 1. The elements of a compound may, in numerous cases, be replaced in equivalent proportions by other elements, and by compound bodies which play the part