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UNIVERSITY 211 body under a chancellor. In the 13th century three colleges were established, and in the 14th these were increased to seven, and most of the students were enrolled in one or the other of them. The government of Cambridge was similar to that of Oxford, and colleges were established there about the same period. (See CAMBHIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF, and OXFORD, UNI- VERSITY OF.) The two other English univer- sities, Durham and London, were founded in 1833 and 1836 respectively. The former owes its origin to an effort begun in 1649 and car- ried into effect in 1657, when letters patent were granted by Cromwell for its establish- ment, the buildings belonging to the deans and prebendaries of Durham cathedral being set apart for its use. But the restoration put an end to the project, and it was not revived till 1831 ; in 1832 an act of parliament permitted the appropriation of certain property belong- ing to the cathedral for the use of the univer- sity, which was opened the following year, and in 1837 it was incorporated and granted all the rights and privileges incident to univer- sities created by royal charter. It now has one college, called University college, and two halls, Bishop Hatfield's, founded in 1846, and Bishop Cousin's, founded in 1851. Its general regulations for education are similar to those of Oxford and Cambridge. The university of London was created in 1836 by royal charter, the provisions of which have been several times enlarged and modified. It confers its degrees, with a few exceptions, upon persons educated in any part of the British dominions who can satisfactorily pass its examinations. Unlike the other universities, it has no colleges immediately connected with it, but has affilia- ted to it nearly all the institutions of learning in the British empire, including Oxford, Cam- bridge, and Durham, and the Scottish and Irish universities, to the students of all of which its honors are open for competition. No degrees are conferred in course or pro cawa honoris, but strict examinations are required before each degree. This institution has accomplished much good in rendering education freer from form and routine, and yet more thorough. All the English universities excepting that of Lon- don formerly required a declaration of mem- bership in the established church as a qualifi- cation for graduation ; but by the universities' test act of 1871, no student at Oxford, Cam- bridge, or Durham is now obliged to subscribe any profession of faith for any degree, or for the exercise of any right of graduates, except- ing in divinity. The universities of Scotland originally differed somewhat from those of England. The students were divided, as in the continental universities, into four nations, named respectively Fife, Angus, Albany, and Lothian, and the colleges were the places of residence of the teachers and not of the stu- dents. St. Andrews had from its foundation in 1411 faculties of arts, divinity, and canon law ; it now consists of two colleges, one of the arts, called the united college of St. Sal- vatpr (founded in 1456) and St. Leonard (1512), which were consolidated in 1747, and the di- vinity college of St. Mary's, founded in 1587. The united college has professors of medicine and chemistry, but the university has no facul- ties of law and medicine. The university of Glasgow, founded in 1451, was empowered from the beginning to teach theology, civil and canon law, and the arts, but only the fac- ulty of arts was fully organized until after the reformation. It now contains the four usual faculties. The students, who reside without the college walls, are divided into four nations, Glottiana (comprising those from Lanarkshire), Transforthana (Scotland north of the Forth), Rothseiana (Buteshire, Renfrewshire, and Ayr- shire), and Londoniana (all other places). The university of Aberdeen was founded in 1494, by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., which granted to it all the immunities and privileges enjoyed by Paris and Bologna. In 1505 a college was founded by Bishop Elphinstone, which was subsequently named King's college. This constituted the entire university till 1598, when Marischal college was founded by George Keith, earl marischal. These two foundations were united by Charles I. under the name of King Charles's university of Aberdeen, but the union seems not to have been recognized, and they retained their character of distinct col- leges till 1858, when they were finally incor- porated in the present university. King's col- lege now comprises the faculties of arts and divinity, and Marischal those of law and medi- cine. The students are divided into four na- tions, Mar, Buchan, Moray, and Angus. The university of Edinburgh, established in 1582 by King James VI., is a single college with the powers of a university. It originally had but one class under a single regent or teacher, but in the beginning of the 17th century it comprised a principal and four regents. Chairs of theology and medicine were instituted in 1642 and 1685 respectively, but there was no faculty of law until the beginning of the 18th century. It was under the direct control of the city corporation till 1858, when a uniform constitution was given to all the Scottish uni- versities by the university act. By this statute each has now three governing bodies, a senates academicus, university court, and general coun- cil. The senatus academicus has charge of the instruction and discipline, and of the property and revenues of the university ; the university court reviews the decisions of the former body, and regulates the internal affairs of the university ; and the general council, a delibera- tive body, discusses any questions affecting the university, but, having no legislative power, refers them to the university court. The chief officers of each university are a chancellor elected by the general council, a vice chancel- lor appointed by the chancellor, and a rector elected by the matriculated students. The rectorship is an honorary office, usually con-