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214 UNIVERSITY 1809 ; Altdorf, 1622, merged in 1809 with Er- langen; Minister, 1631, merged in 1818 with Bonn; Osnabruck, 1632-1 650; Bamberg, 1648- 1803 ; Duisburg, 1655^1804 ; Fulda, 1734- 1805 ; Stuttgart, 1781-1794. The Swiss uni- versities are like the German in almost every respect, but are local rather than national, each being supported by the canton in which it is situated. Instruction is given altogether in the German language, and most of the pro- fessors are graduates of German institutions. Their standard is scarcely second rate. Basel, the oldest, was founded in 1460. There were 32 female students at Bern in 1875, and 33 at Zurich. The universities of Holland are also modelled after those of Germany, but have five faculties, that of philosophy being divided into letters and theoretical philosophy. In- struction is given in great part in the Latin language, and the professors are nearly all or- dinary professors. The university of Leyden, founded by William of Orange, became in the 17th century one of the most famous institu- tions of learning in Europe, and it still retains its high character for scholarship. In 1873 the states general voted 1,300,000 florins for the erection of new buildings and additions to the cabinet collections. The university of Frane- ker, founded in 1585, was suppressed by Napo- leon in 1811. Of the Belgian universities, Lou- vain, founded about 1425, is the oldest and the most celebrated. In the 16th century it ranked as one of the first institutions of learning in Europe, its students numbered more than 6,000, and it possessed 43 colleges, some of which were munificently endowed. It was suppressed by the French in 1797, reestablished in 1817 by the Dutch government, again abolished by the Belgian government in 1834, and in 1835 revived as a free Roman Catholic university under the control of the bishops. It now has five faculties : theology, law, medicine, letters and philosophy, and sciences. The universities of Ghent and Li6ge are state institutions, and each receives from the government 350,000 francs per annum. Each contains four facul- ties, and Ghent has in addition a school of engineering and Liege a school of mines. They are like the German universities in their gen- eral organization, but the examinations for degrees are conducted at Brussels, by a board appointed by the king. The degrees are can- didat and doctor in each of the faculties. The university of Brussels, founded in 1834 by the liberal party as a rival of Louvain, is free from sectarian bias. It comprises faculties of phi- losophy, natural science, jurisprudence, and medicine, and a pharmaceutical school. It is controlled by a council of administration, com- posed of the rector, secretary, and treasurer of the university, with the burgomaster of the city as president. The degree of doctor in any of the faculties is conferred only on those who have been members of the university one year and have received the degree of candidat. The oldest of the Scandinavian universities is that of Upsal in Sweden, founded in 1477 by the regent Sten Sture. The faculties and teachers are the same as in the German universities, but its general organization is modelled after the medieval institutions. The students are divided into nations according to the different provinces to which they belong, each nation having a building and officers of its own. The chancellor, pro-chancellor, professors, rector, &c., are all appointed by the king. The rector, who has immediate supervision, is appointed every year. The university of Lund is similar in all respects to that of Upsal, but has never reached its great . reputation. The govern- ment is about to found a new free university in Stockholm. The university of Christiania, in Norway, is the youngest of the Scandina- vian institutions. It is essentially German in organization and government, and has the usu- al four faculties. The university of Copen- hagen, founded in 1478, is the only one now- possessed by Denmark, since that of Kiel has been transferred to Germany. It has five faculties: theology, medicine, jurisprudence and political science, philosophy, and mathe- matical and natural sciences. A rector, chosen yearly, is the executive officer, and its general organization is like that of the German uni- versities. The Russian universities also are formed on the German model, and many of the professors are German ; but only one, Dorpat, has a theological faculty, and the faculty of philosophy is usually divided into a historico- philological and a physico-mathematical fac- ulty. At Kazan there is a division of oriental languages, which is said to bo the most com- plete Jh the world. Dorpat is noted for its physico-mathematical faculty. The university of Moscow, the oldest established by the Rus- sian government, has a very large and able corps of professors. The Polish university of Warsaw, founded in 1816, was suppressed in 1832, and reestablished under Russian auspices in 1869. That of Wilna, founded in 1579, and also suppressed in 1832, has not been re- vived. The Alexander university of Ilelsing- fors, which was removed from Abo after the burning of its buildings in 1827, still re- tains much of its former character before it came under Russian influence, and is one of the most progressive institutions in the em- pire. It has a chancellor, nominally the em- peror, but who is represented by the minister for Finland, a vice chancellor, a rector, and a pro-rector. All the Russian universities are sustained mostly by the government. In 1875 a new university was about to be established at Tomsk in Siberia. The university of Athens was established in 1837, by subscriptions raised mostly from Greeks resident in foreign coun- tries. It is under the supervision of the min- ister of instruction, but is presided over di- rectly by a rector or vice chancellor. There are four full faculties and a school of phar- macy, and the general system resembles that in the German universities. The university