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Common-Sense Philosophy 229 dent Witherspoon, spread until it formed almost the sole basis of philosophic instruction. Here and there some notice was taken of Mill and Positivism, and Edward's Freedom of the Will^ continued to agitate thoughtful minds inside and out- side of the colleges, but in the main both idealism and empiri- cism were suspected as leading to pantheism or to downright / atheism. The creation of the earth before man was a potent I argument against Berkeleian idealism or denial of matter. The Scottish common-sense realism was a democratic philosophy in the sense that it did not depart widely from the popular views as ! to the nature of the material world, the soul, and God. " It did f not rely on subtle arguments, but appealed to established beliefs. ' It could easily be reconciled with the most literal interpretation of the Bible and could thus be used as a club against freethinkers. Above all, it was eminently teachable. It eliminated all disturb- ing doubts by direct appeal to the testimony of consciousness, and readily settled all questions by elevating disputed opinions into indubitable principles. It could thus be authoritatively taught to adolescent minds, and students could readily recite onj it. Unfortunately, however, philosophy does not thrive under the rod of authority; and in spite of many acute minds like Bowen, Mahan, Bledsoe, or Tappan, or powerful minds like Shedd and Hickok, ^ American philosophy before the Civil War I produced not a single original philosophic work of commanding importance. To the modem reader it is all an arid desert of com- monplace opinion covered with the dust of pedantic language. ' The storm which broke the stagnant air and aroused many American minds from this dogmatic torpor came with the ; controversy over evolution which followed the publication of Lyell's Geology, Darwin's Origin of Species, and Spencer's First Principles. The evolutionary philosophy was flanked on the ■ ' See Book I, Chap. iv. ' It is interesting to note that Jefferson was converted to it by Stewart. 3 Soldier, lawyer, minister, publicist, and editor, as well as professor of ma- thematics, Albert T. Bledsoe deserves to be better known. His Philosophy of Mathematics is still worth reading. So also is Shedd's Philosophy of History, which illustrates the independence of the evolutionary conception of history from the thought of Spencer or Darwin. For sheer intellectual power, however, and for comprehensive grasp of technical philosophy Hickok is easily the foremost figure in American philosophy between the time of Jonathan Edwards and the period of the Civil War. He left, however, no influential disciples except Presi- dents Seeley and Bascom.