not only in the absence of the lower virtues, which are a necessary condition of the higher ones, but even in the presence of the widest development of vices; in consequence of which there prevails in our time, among the majority of the men of the world, the greatest confusion as to what a right life is. The very conception of what constitutes a righteous life has been lost.
II
This, it seems to me, has come about in the following way.
When Christianity replaced heathenism it put forth moral demands superior to the heathen ones, and at the same time—as was also the case with pagan morality—it necessarily laid down one indispensable order for the attainment of virtues—certain steps in the attainment of a righteous life.
Plato's virtues, beginning with temperance,[1] advanced through manliness and wisdom to justice; the Christian virtues, commencing with self-renunciation, rise through devotion to the will of God to love.
Those who accepted Christianity seriously and strove to live righteous Christian lives, thus understood Christianity, and always began living rightly by a renunciation of their desires, which renunciation included the temperance of the pagans.
But let it not be supposed that Christianity in this matter was only echoing the teachings of paganism; let me not be accused of degrading Christianity from its lofty position to the level of heathenism. Such an accusation would be unjust, for I regard the Christian teaching as the highest the world has known, and as quite different from heathenism. The Christian teaching replaced the pagan one simply because it was different from and superior to it. But both Christian and pagan alike
- ↑ It is hardly necessary to point out that in this article temperance is used in its real meaning, and not with any exclusive reference to the drink question.—Tr.
