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DYNASTIC TROUBLES. 115 tliat of the creatures around liiiii was the motive which led to his infamous conduct. The excessive amount of taxation which he had levied upon his own subjects had made him un- popular, while the restrictions upon trade made with the same object, and in violation of the capitulations, had contributed to alienate the Venetians and Pisans, as well as his own mer- chants. To maintain himself upon the throne he was com- pelled to bribe the nobles and the populace ; to raise money for maintaining the defence against Turks, Wallachs, and Italians, his exactions had become intolerable. The trading classes were crushed down under taxation. The capital, in- stead of being the city which gathered through the govern- ment an immense income, which was in great part distributed among the citizens, had become the city where the inhabitants felt most heavily the exactions of their ruler. These exac- tions made the people anxious for any change, hopeful that any new emperor w^ould be less exacting than the actual oc- cupant of the throne. The inhabitants of the provinces were not less dissatisfied. They had lost the sense of protection and security with wdiich, during long centuries, the new Home had surrounded them. They, moreover, had lost their respect for the imperial city, which had seen within a generation so many changes and attempted changes of rulers. The revenues of the empire had been squandered by the last three occupants of the throne, partly in useless gratification of their own love of luxury, partly in maintaining themselves upon the throne. The whole population had lost patriotism under the belief that the existing order of things was not worth defending. The machinery of government had been strained to the utmost during the period when Constantinople had been occupied with dynastic struggles. Eoads were neglected ; bridges, har- bors, aqueducts, and fortifications were allowed to fall into ruins. Governors were too frequently changed. The organ- ization of the army was allowed to get out of order. The navy had been sacrificed. People even lost confidence in the administration of justice. The dynastic struggles had pro- duced anarchy and national demoralization. Contemporane- ously with these struggles, there was no side of the empire