conclusion, it may perhaps be because the details of the geological structure and development of Pennsylvania have not been sufficiently examined. Indeed, unless the reader has already become familiar with the geological maps and reports of the Pennsylvania surveys and is somewhat acquainted with its geography, I shall hardly hope to make my case clear to him. The volumes that should be most carefully studied are, first, the always inspiring classic, "Coal and its Topography" (1856), by Lesley, in which the immediate relation of our topography to the underlying structure is so finely described; the Geological Map of Pennsylvania (1856), the result of the labors of the first survey of the state; and the Geological Atlas of Counties, Volume X of the second survey (1885). Besides these, the ponderous volumes of the final report of the first survey and numerous reports on separate counties by the second survey should be examined, as they contain many accounts of the topography although saying very little about its development. If, in addition to all this, the reader has seen the central district of the state and marvelled at its even-crested, straight and zigzag ridges, and walked through its narrow water-gaps into the enclosed coves that they drain, he may then still better follow the considerations here presented.
Part Second. Outline of the geological history of the region.
5. Conditions of formation.—The region in which the Susquehanna and the neighboring rivers are now located is built in chief part of marine sediments derived in paleozoic time from a large land area to the southeast, whose northwest coast-line probably crossed Pennsylvania somewhere in the southeastern part of the state; doubtless varying its position, however, by many miles as the sea advanced and receded in accordance with the changes in the relative altitudes of the land and water surfaces, such as have been discussed by Newberry and Claypole. The sediments thus accumulated are of enormous thickness, measuring twenty or thirty thousand feet from their crystalline foundation to the uppermost layer now remaining. The whole mass is essentially conformable in the central part of the state. Some of the formations are resistent, and these have determined the position of our ridges; others are weaker and are chosen as the sites of valleys and lowlands. The first are the Oneida and Medina sandstones, which will be here generally referred to under the latter name alone, the Pocono sandstone and the Pottsville conglomerate; to these may be added the fundamental crystalline mass on which
