sivcly with the several reagents just mentioned, tlic relative amounts of its constituents may be readily revealed.
I'rccious metals aiid coins have been debased by the admixture of cheap metals, the presence of which may be readily detected by a syste- matic chemical aiuilysis. Such adulteration has always been regarded legally as a very grave ofTense.
Consult: In English, Richards, Food Materials ami Ihiir Adulteratioiifi (Boston, 1880) : Batter- ghall. Fond Adulteration and Its Detection (New York, 1887): Wedderburn, A Popular Treatise on the F.rtcnt and Cliaractcr of Food Adultera- tions (Washington, 1800) : Wedderburn, Special Report on the F.stcnt and Character of Food Adulterations, Includinci State and Other Laws Kelatinp to Foods and Bevernycs (Washington, 1892) : Wiley, Richardson. Crampton, and Spen- cer, Foods and Food Adulterants, 7 parts (Wash- ington, 1SS7-02) ; Wedderburn, Report on the Eftent and Character of Food and Drufj Adul- teration (Washington, 1804): Bower, Simple Methods for Detectinri Food Adulterations (Lon- don. 180.1 ). In French, Bunker. Traite des falsifications et alterations des .substances ali- mentaires et des hoissons (Paris, 1802) : Bellen- ger, Manuel de I'Inspecteur des dcnrfes alimen- taires (Paris, 1804) : Chevallier et Baudriniont, Dictinnnaire des alterations ct falsifiealionx des substances alimentaires, medicamenteuses et commcrciales, avcc Vindication des moj/ens de les reconnaitre (Paris. 1893-07). In German, Griessniaycr. Die Verfiilschuuf) dcr xcichtigsten 'Sahrunijs- und Ocnussmittel vom chenii^chen Stand/iunltc in popularer Darstcllunq (Augs- burg, 1881 1 ; Dammer, Illustrirtes Le.ril:on dcr Verfdlschun(]en und Verunreinigunf/en dcr Nahr- vngs- und Gcnussmittel. der Kolonialuyiaren, Droguen, qeuerhlichen Produktc, Ookumente, etc. (Leipzig. 1880). For further bibliography, see United States Internal Revenue, Series 7, No. 1:> (Washington, 1888).
ADUL'TERY (Lat. adnlferium, the violation of another's bed, from ad. to -- alter, other). The voluntary sexual intercourse of a married person with a person other than the offender's husband or wife." By the canon law, llie husband and wife were placed on the same footing; and this view has been adopted by all the nations of modern Furopp. In America it has never
been doubted that the ofTense necessary to found
the sentence of divorce is committed liy unlaw-
ful sexual intercourse equally whether the par-
ticeps criminis were married or single. In Rome,
the .Julian law, enacted in the time of Augustus
(17 n.c. ). revised the previous legislation on the
subject, and imposed special penalties, consist-
ing of forfeiture of goods and banishment, both
on the adulteress and the paramour. The hus-
band, in certain eases, was permitted to kill the
latter, and the father might sometimes kill both.
A constitution of Constantinc. the authenticity
of which has been doubled, made adultery a
capital offense on the man's part. Whatever
Constant inc's law was. it was confirmed by .Jus-
tinian, who further condemned the wife to be
whipped, and imprisoned in a convent for the
rest of her days, unless relieved by her husband
within two years (Korcl. l.'?4, "c. 10). The
offense was visited in .'thens with punisliments
closely resembling those of the earlier Roman
legislation. In many Continental <ountries adul-
tery is still treated as a criminal offense, but in
none of them ilocs the punishment now exceed
ini|irisonmenl for a limited period, which is fre-
quently accom])anied with a fine. Lord Coke
says that by the law of England in early times
adultery was punisbeil by fine and imprisonment.
During the Conunonwealth it was uuide a capital
olTense. but this law was not confirmed at the
Restoration. In Scotland the records of the
Court of .lusticiary show that capital pinishment
was frequently inllicted. At the present day it
is punishable in (ireat Britain only by ecclesi-
astical censure, and even this may be regarded
as in desuetude. But when committed by the
wife it was regarded as a civil injury, and, till
the passing of the stat. 20 and 21 Vict., c. 85
and .50. formed the ground of an action of dam-
ages for criminal conversation (commonly known
as an action of crim. con.) by the husband
against the paramour. No corresponding action
was competent to the wife, either in England
or America, until recently, and her only remedy
consisted in obtaining a separation or divorce.
In some of the Tnited States adultery is made
criminal by special law: in some the act itself
is not a crime, but open and continued adultery,
amounting to a public nuisance, is. Some stat-
utes define the crime, some only state the pun-
ishment ; and this leaves a wide margin for
interpretation by courts, giving rise to great
diversity of opinions and decisions. Some hold
that if only one of the i)arties be married, the
other does not commit criminal adultery: some
that a married nuin with a single woman does
not commit criminal adultery, because the act
cannot impose spurious issue on a husband or
wife. See Divorce, and the authorities there referred to.
AD VALO'REM (Lat., according to the
value). A plirase used in customs legislation
to designate taxes measured by the value of the
imported article; i.e., a certain percentage of
the value. Such duties, inasmuch as they fall
with just proportion upon the dilferent grades
of goods, cheap as well as expensive, are in the-
ory the most satisfactory. They involve, however,
a cumbrous and often inefficient machinery for
the ascertainment of values, and from the stand-
point of customs administration are deemed
inferior to specific <liities, which levy a definite
tax upon a given unit of measure (pound, bushel,
gallon, etc.) of the imported articles. The tar-
iffs of the United States embrace both kinds of
duties, and sometimes, especially in the case of
woolen goods, combine them.
ADVANCE' GUARD. Troops on the march are in a formation in which they cannot fight, and when they come upon the enemy they must first deploy. This takes time, especially in large columns, consequently such columns require detachments to protect them against surprise, which in an advance are placed ahead of the column and are called advance guards. Good reconnaissance by the cavalry screen in front of the army is the best protection, but this cavalry may at any time be beaten by the enemy and forced off to one flank, or it may have been drawn off in pursuit of the enemy's cavalry, hence immediate protection for the beads of the columns is still a necessity. The strength of the advance guard depends cm the condition of the screening cavalry, but should be the least necessary on account of the arduous duty it demands, at the same time the units should not be broken.
