people. The Afghan language is divided into two great dialects, the southern and the northern. The differences between these two dialects are ma inly phonological; thus, North Afghan k)i. j, and initial c^ South Afghan sh, zh, k. The Afghan is undoubtedly an Iranian language, altliongli it has suffered many corruptions, espppially in its vowel system. The dialect has many foreign loan-words, chiefly from the Persian, and through this from the Arabic, and from the Indian, particularly Sindhi. The Afghan literature is scanty and dates only from the sixteenth century. The ])oetry is copied closely after Persian models, although there ex- ists a gieat mass of popular Afghan songs of true Oriental beauty. The Frencir scholar J. Dar- mcsteter (1849-94) made a collection of these. Reference may be made to Geiger, tiprache der Afghancn. in Geiger and Kuhn's (Iriiiidriss der mtnischen Philologie, V. 1, pt. 2, 201-230 (Strass- burg, 1898), and the works there cited. Con- sult: J. Darmesteter, Chants poiniliiiies des Af- ghans (Paris, 1888-90), the most convenient book in general, which contains an historical sketcli, a grammar, texts, and translation.
AFGHANISTAN, af-gfin'is-tan'. A country
in Central Asia. Iietween British India and Per-
sia. It is situated between lat. 29° and 38° 30'
N., and long. 61° and 75° E. (Map: Afghanis-
tan, J 4: Asia, F 5). It is bounded by Russia.
Bokhara, and the Pamir on the north, Britisli
India on the east, Baluchistan on the south, and
Persia on the west. Its total area is estimated
at 225,000 square miles. It is generally divided
into five parts: (1) The nortlieastern part, com-
prising Badakhshan, Kafiristan, and a portion of
the Pamir: (2) Afghan Turkestan, in the nortli:
(3) Kabulistan, or the region of Kabul, in the
east; (4) Southern Afghanistan, which com-
prises Kandahar and the country south, down to
the Baluchistan boundary line; (5) the province
of Herat, in the west. The political divisions of
Afghanistan, however, are far from coinciding
with its ethnographical or geographical divisions,
as there are still numerous independent khanates
and tribes which do not fully recognize the au-
thority of the Ameer.
Physical Features. The .surface of Afghan- istan is exceedingly mountainous, a great part of it being covered with the mighty chain of Hindu-Kush and its offshoots. The Hindu-Kush extends in a northeast and southwest direction for about 400 miles to the Irak and Shibar passes, where it assumes the name of Koh-i-Baba. Its highest peaks are over 20,000 feet al)ove the sea, and the passes of Irak and Shibar on the route from Afghan Turkestan to Kabul are 12.000 feet and 8000 feet high respectively. The Koh-i-Baba chain branches off into two ranges, the Safed- Koh and Siah-Koh. Another branch is sent off by the Hindu-Kush above the Sirak Pass, which is called the Paghman Mountains. They run in a soutliwestern direction, and eventually unite with the Suleiman Mountains, which traverse the eastern part of Afglianistan. Besides the above mentioned principal chains, there are many secondary ranges and single mountains too nu- merous to describe.
The principal rivers of Afghanistan are the Heri-Rud, which flows through the Herat Valley; the Helniand, the largest river of Afghanistan, which rises near the Bamian Valley and flows in a general southwestern direction, entering the Lake of Hamun; the Kabul, a tributary of the Indus, and the Amu-Daria (Oxus), which forma the northern boundary of Afghanistan.
The climate is generally healthful and dry, al- though there are great variations of temperature, which rises as high as 100 degrees in the summer and falls as low as 10 degrees in the winter. The rainfall is very scanty, even during the lainy season, and for agricultural purposes a system of irrigation, called karez, is maintained. It consists of subterranean channels connecting the springs with one another, by which the water is brought to the surface.
Tlie mineral deposits of Afghanistan are sup- posed to be very rich, but so far the expectations have not been realized. Iron, lead, and sulphur are worked on a small scale, and gold is found in small quantities in some of the hills and rivers, while precious stones are known to exist in Badakhshan.
The flora is very rich in the valleys, while the mountains are all barren, except those in the north, which are covered with forests to an ele- vation of 10,000 feet. The main products are wheat, corn, rice, grapes, sugar, tobacco, and cotton. The country is especially famous for its fruits, which include ajiples, pomegranates, and peaches of an excellent quality. Vegetables are also grown to a considerable extent, and a very important product is the asafoetida. a resinous gum exported in large quantities to India. Tlie fauna includes the leopard, wolf. bear, cheeta, hyena, jackal, various gazelles, and wild asses." Among the domestic animals may be mentioned the liorse. the dromedary, ass, cow, two kinds of sheep, and the goat.
Agriculture ano Traoe. The soil of Afghan- istan, where it is fit for agriculture, is generally very fertile and in most cases yields two crops a year. Wheat, barley, peas, and beans are sown late in the fall and ripen in the summer, while rice, millet, and corn are sown in the spring and harvested in autumn. The breeding of domestic animals is carried on extensively, and wool forms one of the chief exports to India. Owing to the practical absence of any manufac- turing industries, the exports of Afghanistan are confined largely to raw products, such as wool, cattle, silk, and dried fruit. Some rugs, felts, and silk articles are produced on a small scale. The trade is chiefly with India and Bok- hai-a. The mountainous character of the coun- try makes the use of wheeled vehicles in most cases impossible, and merchandise is usually car- ried on camelsor ponies.
Ethn'OGRAPIIY. The Afghans, or Pathans, speaking a language called Piikhtu, or Pushtu, form three-fifths of the population of Afghanistan. They are of mixed ancestry, althougli the Indic aflinities of their language indicate a preponderance of Aryan blood of the Mediterranean stock. They' are not Semites, as some authorities have believed, their national claim to an Israelitish descent being an afterthought based upon the occasional appearance among them of Jewish traits. Besides a dash of Semitic blood, they have in all probability inherited some of a different sort from the earlier inhabitants of the country, who may have been akin to the Dravidians of India. Among the principal tribes are the Duranis of the west and south, Ghilzais in the east.and theYusufzais and Afridis on the Indian frontier. Less important Afghan tribes are the Swatis, Waziris, Kakars, Khostis, etc. Some other peoples of Afghanistan, such as
