the spinning of fibres and the weaving of cloth, the tanning of leather, the making of butter, cheese, wines, cider, vinegar, etc., have been largely done by farmers. Gradually, however, these occupations have been specialized and removed wholly or in part from the farm. Thus, the production of forest trees has been specialized as forestry, and the production of fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants has formed the subject of horticulture. Such occupations as breeding livestock, raising poultry, bee-keeping, and fish culture are also pursued independently of general agriculture. The term agriculture has, therefore, been gradually restricted to the production of a limited group of plants and animals, such as may be brought together on single farms in a system of mixed husbandry. The particular animals and plants included in agriculture in this narrower sense will vary with the region and a variety of circumstances. For example: in some regions the sweet potato is raised in a small way in gardens and is there considered a horticultural plant, while in regions where it is raised in large fields it is considered an agricultural plant. In the present article the term agriculture will be used in a somewhat broad sense, and the sketch will be confined to a brief outline of the historical development of agriculture, general statistics of a few of the more important agricultural products, and references to parts of the more general literature of agriculture. Information regarding particular plants and animals, or special agricultural industries, may be found in other articles in this Encyclopædia.
The Earliest Agriculture. Agriculture began in prehistoric times, when primitive man first began to select particular plants in his immediate environment as preferable to others for his use as food or for making his clothes, and when he first directed his efforts toward promoting the growth of plants. Whether these attempts preceded those to capture and confine animals, with a view to employing them as beasts of burden, or to using their meat, milk, or skins, we do not know. It is, however, clear, that while the migratory habits of savage tribes must have tended to hinder anything like systematic cultivation of the soil, they probably did not prevent the domestication of animals.
The practices of some aboriginal tribes at the present time indicate that efforts to promote the growth of useful plants by the removal of other plants growing among them antedates the planting of seeds. Similar evidence points to the beginning of agricultural implements in the use of pointed and forked sticks to scratch the soil or remove obnoxious vegetation. The union of two such sticks with a leathern thong made a rude mattock or hoe, and a larger implement of the same kind formed the primitive plow, which was drawn, very likely, at first by men and afterward by domesticated animals. The great burden of agricultural labors was in those early ages undoubtedly thrown upon woman, as has been the case among the tribes of North American Indians, whose men have devoted themselves almost exclusively to the chase and to war. It is interesting to observe that severe military requirements still necessitate the employment of women in field labor on the continent of Europe.
Egyptian Agriculture. In tracing the development of agriculture in historical times we naturally turn first to Egypt, the motherland of our civilization. The records preserved on ancient monuments allow us to trace the history of agriculture in Egypt back to at least 3000 B.C. At that early time various animals had already become domesticated, and the growing of crops for man and beast by a regular system of tillage and irrigation had been united with the feeding of large numbers of animals on the ranges. There was, however, no fixed distinction between wild and domesticated animals, and with certain kinds of animals the limits of domestication had not been definitely settled. The land and livestock were very largely the property of the royal, priestly, and military classes; the care of animals and the performance of farming operations were in the hands of hired laborers or slaves. Agriculture was, however, a more honorable occupation than trading or the mechanical arts. Herdsmen and fishermen were in the lowest class; swineherds especially were despised. Cattle, sheep, goats, and swine were kept, often in large herds and flocks. The cattle belonged to the same species as the present cattle of India. Both bulls and cows were used for labor, but the flesh of the males only was eaten. Sheep were kept for both wool and milk (from which cheese was made), but do not appear to have been often used for food. Goats seem to have furnished the principal milk supply of ancient Egypt. Swine were raised in large numbers, though they were considered unclean and were forbidden food except on certain days or for the priests. The donkey and camel were the principal beasts of burden from prehistoric times. The donkey was probably first domesticated by the ancient Egyptians, being taken from the wild asses which came from their home at the headwaters of the Nile. Horses were brought into Egypt about 1900 B.C., when the Shepherd Kings from Asia conquered the country. The stallions only were used for war and for shows. They were kept in stables and fed on straw and barley. Water fowls, especially geese, were abundantly raised. Breeding of animals by selection was customary, as well as branding them for identification. “When the Nile overflowed, animals of all kinds were placed upon artificial raised ground, and fed upon wheat, straw, and leguminous fodder raised for the purpose.”
Crops were grown with the aid of the alluvial deposits annually made by the overflowing Nile and of irrigation to supply the lack of rainfall. Irrigation water was taken from the Nile and distributed through numerous canals and ditches. The water was raised to the top of the river bank by handsweeps such as are often used on farms to-day for raising water from shallow wells, or by means of a vessel held with straps between two laborers, who pulled against each other in lifting the water. In some cases seed was sown after the Nile flood without preparation of the land, and was trodden in by animals. Generally, the plow or the hoe was used. The plow consisted of a wooden plowshare, double handle, and draft pole or beam. “The beam and stilt were fastened together by thongs or by a twisted rope, which kept the share and beam at a proper distance and helped to prevent the former from penetrating too deeply into the earth.” The plow was drawn by two bulls or cows, yoked by the shoulders or attached by the horns. Generally, one man held the plow
