assassination of Alexander II. had somewhat subsided. Alexander at first expressed his intention of following out the constitutional reforms of Loris Melikoff, but he fell under the influence of the leaders of the old Russian Nationalist party, Katkoff, Pobiedonostseff, and Ignatieff, and restored the autocratic system of Nicholas so far as internal affairs were concerned. He pursued a stern policy of repression with regard to the political agitation which had caused the violent death of his father. The Terrorists were practically suppressed, a rigid censorship was reëstablished, education was restricted, and dissenting religions were persecuted. Among the sects that were persecuted were the Jews; and as a result of the persecution great numbers of them emigrated from the country, chiefly to the United States and South Africa. The policy of the Russification of the non-Russian provinces, begun by Nicholas I. and discontinued for a time by Alexander II., was resumed with new vigor. The finances of the Empire were well managed. The revenue was largely increased, and a protective tariff was used as a part of the system to strengthen Russian nationality.
In his foreign policy Alexander did not follow the example of Nicholas. His influence was directed toward the preservation of peace. Russia and France were drawn into closer and closer connection in opposition to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy. Alexander continued the policy of interference in the affairs of the Balkan States, especially Bulgaria, bitterly resenting that spirit of nationalism which his father had regarded as ingratitude toward Russia. He endeavored, not very successfully, to counteract Austrian influence among the Balkan peoples. In Asia he continued to round out the frontier and strengthen Russia's hold on its provinces. Several attempts were made to assassinate him, but they lacked the completeness of preparation and the venomous persistence which had pursued his father. Alexander married Dagmar (re-baptized into the Greek Church as Maria Feodorovna), daughter of Christian IX. of Denmark, November 9, 1863. He died November 1, 1894. He was succeeded by his son, Nicholas II.
Consult: Andrews, Historical Development of Modern Europe, Volume II. (New York, 1898); Seignobos, Political History of Modern Europe (New York, 1900); Samson-Himmelstierna, Russland unter Alexander III. mit Rückblicken auf die jüngste Vergangenheit (Leipzig, 1891), translated by Morrison, Russia under Alexander III. and in the Preceding Period (New York, 1893); Lowe, C., Alexander III. of Russia (London. 1895). This reign has claimed very little special attention from historians.
ALEXANDER I. (c. 1078-1124). King of Scotland, the fourth son of Malcolm Canmore. He succeeded his brother Edgar, in 1107, but he ruled over only the old kingdom of Scotland, north of the Forth and Clyde, Cumbria having been made practically an independent principality by Edgar on his deathbed. Alexander was called "the Fierce," as a result of his campaign against some northern clans who had rebelled because of their aversion to the introduction of English customs. Alexander was naturally inclined to follow English ways, for his mother was Margaret, grandniece of Edward the Confessor, his wife a natural daughter of Henry I. of England, and he himself had been educated in England. During his reign there was peace between England and Scotland. Yet he worked earnestly for the independence of Scotland, and especially to free the Scottish Church from its subjection to either York or Canterbury. He bestowed great gifts on the Church, and founded several monasteries, including the abbeys of Scone and Inchcolm. He died April 27, 1124, and was succeeded by his brother David.
ALEXANDER II. (1198-1249). King of Scotland. He succeeded his father, William the Lion, in 1214. He early displayed that wisdom and strength of character by which he won the appellation of "the Peaceful," and in virtue of which he holds so high a place in history among Scottish kings. In 1214 he joined the English barons who had combined to resist the tyranny of King John, and who secured the Magna Charta. This drew down upon him and his kingdom the papal excommunication; but subsequently the ban was removed, and the liberties of the Scottish Church were confirmed. On the accession of Henry III. to the English throne, Alexander brought the feuds of the two nations to a temporary close by a treaty of peace (1217), and, in 1221, he married Henry's eldest sister, the Princess Joan. The alliance thus established was broken after the death, without issue, of Queen Joan (1238), and the second marriage of Alexander with the daughter of a nobleman of France. In 1244 Henry marched against Scotland to compel Alexander's homage, but peace was concluded without an appeal to arms. While engaged in one of those warlike expeditions which the turbulence of his subjects so frequently rendered necessary, Alexander died of fever at Kerrera, a small island in the Bay of Oban.
ALEXANDER III. (1241-85). King of Scotland. He succeeded his father, Alexander II., in 1249, and two years afterward he married the Princess Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry III. of England. Alexander's minority enabled Henry to prosecute successfully for some time his schemes for obtaining entire control over the Scottish kingdom ; but long before he reached manhood, Alexander displayed so much energy and wisdom as to give assurance that when the administration of affairs should come under his personal direction it would be vain to think of reducing him to submission. Very shortly after he had come of age his energies were summoned to the defense of his kingdom against the formidable invasion of Hakon, King of Norway (12(53), who claimed the sovereignty of the Western Isles. In attempting a landing at Largs, on the ooast of Ayr, the Norwegian prince sustained a total defeat, and Alexander, as the result of this important victory, secured the allegiance both of the Hebrides and of the Isle of Man. An alliance was formed between Scotland and Norway, and strengthened in 1281 by the marriage of .Alexander's only daughter, Margaret, to Eric, King of Norway. This princess died in 1283. leaving an infant daughter, Margaret, commonly called the Maiden of Norway, whose untimely death, on her way to take possession of her throne, was the occasion of so many calainities to Scotland. During the concluding years of Alexander's reign the kingdom enjoyed a peace and prosperity which it did not taste again for many generations. The jus-
