cultural Laborers' Union. In 1873 he visited Canada and the United States to study the condition and prospects of labor, and the question of emigration. In 1885 he was elected to Parliament from Northwest Norfolk as a Liberal; was defeated in 1886, and reelected in 1892 and in 1895. In 1898 his autobiography, edited by the Countess of Warwick, was published.
ARCHÆAN (är-kē′an) SYSTEM (from Gk.
ἀρχαῖος. archaios, ancient). A name proposed by J. D. Dana, in 1872, for the entire series of crystalline rocks that forms the oldest underlying fundamental complex of the earth's crust. Earlier names applied to this series were: Azoic, Primitive, Huronian, and Laurentian, of American geologists, and Urgebirge and Primitivgebirge of the still earlier Germans, Werner and Lehmann. The rocks of this system consist of a complex series of gneisses, granites, and schists, with a host of associated massive igneous intrusions, all of which have sulfered profound disturbances and metamorphism to such an extent that it is extremely doubtful if at the present day there exist any traces of their original characters. They form, as a rule, the cores of the great mountain masses, and are the original sources from which were derived, by erosion through countless ages, all the forms of later sedimentary rocks, which they underlie with marked unconformity. Various classifications of Archæan rocks have been made in the attempt to organize them into stratigraphic groups, but owing to the complex nature of the series, and to the almost complete absence of reliable data for determining the relative age of the component formations, no one classification has as yet received general recognition. These Archæan rocks of undoubted primeval origin, together with certain others, which because of their probable sedimentary derivation have been separated under the name Algonkian, antedate in respect of the time of their formation the rocks of the Cambrian system, and can be described to better advantage under the title, Pre-Cambrian Formations, to which article the reader is referred for further information. See also Algonkian System; and Taconic System.
ARCHÆOLOGICAL (ar'ke-fi-lojlkal) INSTITUTE OF AMERICA. A society for the promotion of archaeological investigation and research. It was organized in Boston in 1879, and has since established nine affiliated societies, with headquarters in difl'erent American cities. The Institute foiuided the American School of
Classical Studies in Athens in ISSl: the Ameri-
can School of Classical Studies in Rome in 1895,
and the American School in Palestine in 1900.
These are supported partly by private subscrip-
tion and partly by the aid of several American
colleges. The society conducted important ex-
cavations of the site of ancient Assos in ISSl-S.S,
and has aided the School at Athens in its exca-
vation of Grecian sites, notably that of the
Herteum, in the Argolid. The official organ of
the society is the Amrrlcnn Journtil of Arclia;-
ology, a bi-monthly magazine. Besides this the
society publishes various pa])ers and supple-
mental reports, and more important publications
are in course of preparation, notably a fac-
simile reproduction of the Codex Venetus of
Aristophanes, and important descriptions of the
results of special archaeological investigations.
The membership of the society is about one thou-
sand. Its presidents have been: Prof. Charles
Kliot Norton, 1879-90; Seth Low, 1890-90; Prof.
John Williams White (of Harvard), 1896.
ARCHÆOLOGY, ar'kf-61'o-jl (Gk. ipxaiooyia, (irchdiologia, antiquarian lore, from dpxaoj, archaios, ancient + XA70S, logos, science). The science of anti(iuities — that is, of the material remains of ancient peojdes. But from the fact that in its origin and development it has been primarily and chiclly concerned with the artistic and architectural renniants of the Graco-Eonian world, it is often taken to mean the science of Greek and Koman antiquities, in which sense the term will be used in this article, without losing sight of the cimnection subsisting between these monuments and those of the more ancient peoples to whom they owe in great measure their inception.
As a science, arch-Teology cannot justly be said to have existed before the last century, although the way had been gradually paved for it from the time of the Italian Renaissance. The pas- sion for the artistic relics of Gripco-Roman civili- zation, which at the end of the Fifteenth Cen- tury took such surprising hold upon the cultured classes of Italy under the Paj)al sway, led to the foundation of museums, in which were gathered statues of bronze and marble, vases, inscriptions, gems, jewelry, and coins, afl'ording material for study and comparison. The spoils brought over from Greece by her Roman conquerors, and the mania for collecting treasures from the same source which had been displayed by many Ro- man amateurs, as well as the "great artistic and architectural activity in imjierial Rome under the guidance of Greek masters, rendered that city a mine for the early archaeologists; and, further- more, much filtered in from Greece itself. (Cf. Lanciani, Ancient Rome in the Light of Recent Discoveries, Boston and New York, 1889.) It must be admitted that these collectors w^ere en- thusiastic rather than scientific, and that the works of art discovered were ruthlessly restored to present a pleasing appearance, often at the complete sacrifice of accuracy. Heads an<l bodies of totally difl'erent stjde we're frequently joined in hybrid works which still mislead the unin- formed.
The father of modern arclurology is Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717-08) (q.v.), whose writings, although superseded in many points, are still of value, and who, by his genius, marked out the field since so successfully cultivated. He first presented to European scholars an authentic account of the discoveries made in the Campanian city of Herculaneum (q.v.), and, more than all, first wrote a systematic history of ancient art {Geschichfe der Kiinst des Alter-(/turns, 1764: vid. Winckelmann's complete works, edited by Meyer and Sehulzc, Dresden, 1808-20). By a passage in Vinekelinann's writings, Lessing was stimulated to the composition of his great lesthetie essay, "Laocoiin," and Goethe also was powerfully influenced by him. Thus the .seed of the new science was planted, to develop after the era of the wars of the French Revolution. Like his predecessors, Winckelmann was able to know Greek art only through the copies of the Roman period, or the few^ originals of later times: but even through this haze he was able to distinguish some of the characteristics of the period, and his works prepared the way for the
