Ausgiinge tier cla.isischeii liaukuiist (Early Christian), and Die Fortsetsuiig der classischen Baukiinst im osfromischen Rcivhe (Byzantine); Franz Pascha, liaukunst des Islam (Darmstadt, 189C); and Essenwein, a series of works on Die roinanixche und die gothische Baukunst (Darm- stadt, 1889-92), including his volumes on Mili- tary Architecture (Kriegsbaukunst) , and Do- mestic Architect lire (Wohnhau) .
There are tivn principal dictionaries of archi- tecture in En^'li^li: TJte Diefi(tnnrtf of Archi- tecture of the English Architectural Publication Society, on a large scale, never com])leted: and Russell Sturgis, Dictionary of Architecture (New York, 1901-02), in 3 vols., covering the ground of technique, history, classification of monuments, and biography. Gwilt, Enelycopce- dia of Architecture (London, 1888), is handy to consult. In French there is Planat, Encyclope- dic de I'architecture ct de la construction (Paris, 1890-93).
ARCHITECTURE, Ancient American. No historical sketch of aboriginal American archi- tecture is possible with our lack of reliable data as to the history of the American races and their relation to each other. The tribes whom we are ac- customed to group under such heads as "Mound Builders" and "Clill' Dwellers" (for illustration see these titles), although far from being the earliest inhabitants of our continent, never pro- duced any works that enter the domain of art, though some of the "pueblos" show careful con- struction and plan, especially in Arizona and New Mexico; for example, Casa Grande (q.v. for illustration); Chihuahua; and Bonito. The peo- ples of Maya and Xahuatl nationality who found- ed the confederacies of Mexico, Central America, Peru, and other South American States, devel- 0))ed an architecture that may fairly be compared v.'ith that of Farther Asia, especially India. But no sure historic records of the age of these monu- ments gives an earlier date than the Twelfth Century a.d.: though plausible conjecture goes back to the Fifth Century n.c. for the earliest Maya examples. The earliest ruins are those of the jMayas, and among them we can distinguish local variations and historic development; for example, those of Chiapas, of which the most im- portant are at Palenque, differ from those in Yucatan, which are much later. The ruins at Copan, in Honduras, form the connecting link between the Palenque style and that found at U.mal, Cliichen-Itza, Izamal, and other ruined cities of Yucatan. Guatemala also has monu- ments of the Palenque, and later types, at Utat- lan, Cahuinal, Tikal, etc. The fortified city of Tenampua, in Honduras, is especially interesting. It is important that the Maya ruins of Central America are the more monumental the nearer they approach the frontier of Yucatan. The arrangement of the buildings is according to one general scheme; they rise from a mound, sur- mounted by a platform on which the building or buildings stand. This mound is entirely or partly natural, cut into terraces about five feet high or lines of stone steps. The lines of the mound are made by rubble, and retaining walls, faced cither with colored stucco, or large slabs (Palenque), or with dressed stone (Chichen-Itza and Uxmal). The separate buildings rise from a base in the form of a truncated pyramid, and the chambers and passages are covered with vaults formed of the triangular corbel arch of projecting horizontal courses. Among the most impressive structures are the pyramids; one at Izamal is between 700 and 800 feet long, and eon- tains several cliambers. They usually rose in front of each temple. These pyramids were crowned by shrines, and bear some resemblance to Buddhist buildings in India. The greatest variety of monuments is at Chichen-Itza. There was a lavish use of decorative sculpture either as integral part of the architecture, or in the form of accessory steles, pillars, obelisks, statues. The famous "Tablet of the Cross" from Palenque is the most tasteful simple piece. An idea of the way in which the JIaya buildings were grouped is given by the ruins" of Palenque, Uma- land, and Chichen-Itza. For illustrations, see these titles. The Mayas suffered from invasions of Nahuatl peoples in the Sixth Century a.d., but though more recent, the Xahuatl monuments appear not to have survived so well; perhaps because this people preferred the less durable material of adobes, cemented together with mortar, to the stonework of the Mayas. This is exemplified in the Pyramid of Choliila, originally crowned by a magnificent temple destroyed by Cortes. " It measures 1440 feet square— an area nearly four times that of the Pyramid of Cheops; its height was 177 feet, and it was divided into four ter- races. Ruinsof debated character occur at Xoehi- calco. in Mexico, Huatusco, and Centla. Here, as with the Mayas, the truncated pyramid is the main form of substructure. It is" curious that even less remains of the Aztec monuments, erected only during the t^-o centuries preceding the Spanish Conquest. Probably it was because, being the centres of civilization at that time, they bore the brunt of Spanish vandalism, while the older cities, long since deserted, remained immune and often unknown. Perhaps slightly earlier than the .ztee domination are the cities of the Zajiotees in Central America, whose capi- tal. Mitla, was captured and ruined by Aztecs c.IoOO A.D. The palace at Mitla has called forth the most enthusiastic praise for the beauty of its masonry, the symmetry of its proportions, and the classic restraint of its or- nament. This ])alace consists of an interior quadrangle. 130x120 feet, surrounded on three sides by mounds crowned by other buildings. It is built not entirely of dressed stones, a.% at Palenque. but of faced rubble, as in Yucatan. The main hall was supported by six columns, sup)iorting heavy beams, a most unusual arrange- ment. It must be remembered that the manual labor of facing the masonry and executing the sculptured decoration in all these buildings of Central -America and Yucatan, was vastly in- creased by the lack of metal implements. We finally come to Peru, which is studded with ruins of the greatest interest. bold in construction and massiveness. though lacking in that richness of sculptured ornament so characteristic of the stylos thus f,ar mentioned. Pachacaniac. Chimu, Tiaguanaco. Titicaca, and Cuzco are the most important sites. The fortresses are of especial interest; also great engineering works, such as aqiU'ducts, reservoirs, and bridges. The temples, called huacn.1, are composed of truncated pyra- mids, usuall,v of stone. That of Obispo is 150 feet high, with a base .580 feet square, covering eight acres. Some of these p,vramids .served as sepulchres, like one near Obispo, surrounded by
