at St. Petersburg in 1725. In 1739 the Academy
of Sciences of Stockholm was established with
a most distinguished member in Linnæus, and
was incorporated in 1741 as the Royal Swedish
Academy. In 1742 Christian VI. founded the
Royal Academy of Copenhagen; in 1750-51 the
Gottingen Academy of Sciences was established;
in 1754 the Electoral Academy at Erfurt; in 1755
the Academy of Sciences of Mannheim was
founded by the Elector Palatine, Karl Theodor,
and in 1759 the Electoral Bavarian Academy of
Sciences was founded at Munich. In Spain the
Royal Academy of Science at Madrid began its
existence in 1774; in Italy the Royal Academy
of Sciences of Turin originated in 1759 as a pri-
vate society, receiving royal recognition in 1783.
Not merely were academies founded in the broad
field of science, in its earlier sense of all human
knowledge: they were established for all imag-
inable special purposes. In surgery, the Surgical
Academy of Paris, 1731, and the so-called Acad-
emy of Surgery at Vienna, more properly a
college, are the most prominent examples. In
archæology and history we find the Royal Acad-
emy of Portuguese History established in 1720,
a similar institution at Madrid chartered in
1738, the Archæological Academy of Upsala
founded in 1710, that of Cortona in 1727, and
that of Herculaneum at Naples in 1755. In
literature the Royal Spanish Academy, founded
by the exertions of the Duke d'Escalona in 1713
or 1714, and the Royal Academy of Savoy, found-
ed in 1719 by Charles Felix, are the most prom-
inent of numerous similar institutions, including
those of St. Petersburg of 1783, later a part of
the Imperial Academy, and Stockholm in 1786.
In music and the fine arts, the departments to
which the name has been especially applied in
England, the Royal Academy of Arts was found-
ed in 1708, with Sir Joshua Reynolds as its first
president, the Academy of Arts at Jlilan, that
of painting and sculpture and architecture at
Madrid by Philip V., the Swedish Academy of
Fine Arts by Count Tessin in 1733, and the
Academy of Painting and Sculpture at Turin
in 1778.
During the nineteenth century a smaller num- ber of such organizations were founded, partly because the field was so well covered, partly be- cause other forms of activity or the same form of institution under a different name took its place. (See Societies; Advancement of Sci- ence, Associations for the.) The Royal Hibernian Academy, founded in 1803, the English Royal Academy of Music, founded in 1822 and incorporated in 1830, and the Royal Scottish Academy, founded in 1826 and chartered in 1838, represent the English activities in this field. The Philadelphia Academy of Sciences, founded in 1812 and incorporated in 1817, and the Vienna Academy of Sciences, founded in 1846, are among the most important scientific foundations of the century. The Celtic Academy of Paris, founded 1800 to 1805 and merged in 1814 into the Society of Antiquaries of France, and the Academy of History and Antiquities of Naples, founded by Joseph Bonaparte, represent the Napoleonic period. The Academy of Medicine of Paris, founded for research into matters affecting public health, 1820, has performed excellent service to the community at large. But the most important event in academic organ- ization of the century was the reorganization of the French Academy into the Institute of France, an account of which may be found under that title in this work. The French Academy as now constituted represents the old academy of Rich- elieu, though it is reckoned officially as the highest of the five divisions of the Institute. Its membership in 1902 was as follows, in order of seniority:
| Ernest Legouvé | Ferdinand Brunetière |
| Emile Ollivier | José M. de Hérédia |
| Alfred Mézières | Albert Sorel |
| Gaston Boissier | Paul Bourget |
| Victorien Sardou | Henri Houssaye |
| Duc d'Audiffret-Pasquier | Jules Lemaître |
| A. J. E. Rousse | Anatole France |
| R. F. A. Sully-Prudhomme | Marquis Costa de Beauregard |
| Cardinal Perraud (Bishop of Autun) | Gaston Paris |
| Andre Theuriet | |
| Francois Coppée | Comte Albert Vandal |
| Ludovic Halévy | Conite Albert de Mun |
| V. C. O. Gréard | Gabriel Hanotaux |
| Comte Othénin d'Haussonville | H. E. L. Lavedan |
| Jules Claretie | C. J. B. E. Guillaume |
| P. E. L, Deschanel | |
| Vicomte E. M. Melchior Vogüé | Paul Hervieu |
| Émile Faguet | |
| Charles de Freycinet | Marcellin Berthelot |
| Julien Viaud (Pierre Loti) | Marquis C. J. Melchior de Vogüé |
| Ernest Lavisse | |
| Paul Thureau-Dangin | Edmond Rostand |
It remains to notice in detail some of the other more important existing academies. The Royal Academy, Burlington House, London, the association of English artists, holds an exhibition each year, open to all artists, and corresponding to the French Salon. It consists at present of 358 Academicians (R. A.), four Honorable Retired Academicians, six Honorable Foreign Academicians, thirty Associates (A. R. A.), four Honorable Retired Associates. Sir Edward John Poynton has been its president since 1896. The Royal Academy of Berlin, founded in 1700, owes its present statutes to the year 1881. It consists of two sections — physics-mathematics and philosophy-history. It has 60 regular and 20 foreign, corresponding, and honorary members. Its publications have appeared since its foundation. The Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg, founded in 1725, has three divisions — physics-mathematics, Russian language and literature, history-philology. It is richly endowed, and offers yearly prizes for contributions to learning. Its library is very large, and it controls a number of museums. The Royal Swedish Academy, founded in 1739, has 100 native and 75 foreign members, and its work is divided into nine classes. The Royal Bavarian Academy includes theology, law, finance, and medicine among its activities, and has three classes — philosophy-philology, mathematics-physics, and history. The Imperial Academy of Sciences of Vienna, founded in 1846, comprises two classes — philosophy-history and mathematics-science — with frequent meetings, and its publications are especially numerous and important. It is well endowed by private benefaction, and by the State, and is enabled to send out many scientific expeditions.
In the United States there are many such societies. The earliest founded was the American Philosophical Society, organized in 1743 through the efforts of Benjamin Franklin, who was its first secretary, and later, until his death, its president. The interests and the activities of this society covered the whole range of science pure and applied, and of philosophy. The publication of Transactions began in 1799 and of its Proceedings in 1838. At present the society has
