His text-books in plulosopliy were much used, and Kant made them for a while the basis of his own leetures. The cleverness of his style made him an important eontributor to modern philosophical terminology. Among other philo- sophic subjects, he contributed an interesting work on irs.theties; but the claim often made that he is the founder of modern a'sthetic theory can- not be granted imqualifiedly. Concerning his significance in the history of aesthetics, see ^Esthetics. His most important works were: Melriphysica (17o9), reissued by Eberhard (1789); Ethica Philosophica (1740); JEsthetica (2 vols., 1750-58; left unfinished) ; Philosophica Oeneralis (ed. by Forster, 1770). Consult: H. G. Meyer, Leibniz und Baumfinrten als Begriin- der der deiitschen Msthetih (Halle, 1874) ; and J. Schmidt, Leihni^ und Bimmyarteii (Halle, 1875).
BAUMGARTEN, Hermann (1825-93). A
German historian, born at Lesse (Brunswick).
In 1842-48 he studied at Jena, Halle, Leipzig,
Bonn, and Gottingen. In 1861-72 he was pro-
fessor of history and literature at the Polytech-
nikum at Karlsruhe, and in 1872-89 at the Uni-
versity of Strassburg. His jniblications include:
GescliichtK Sj^nicns zur Zeit der franzosischen
Revolution (Berlin, 1861) ; Oeschichte Spaniens
vom Aushruch der franzosischeti Revolution bis
auf unsere Tage (1865-71): and Karl V. und
die deatsche Reformation (1889).
BAUMGARTEN, Michael (1812-89). A
German theologian, born in Haseldorf (Hol-
stein). He stiulied at the University of Kiel,
in 1846 became pastor at Schleswig, and in 1850
professor of theolog' at Rostock. Although ad-
mittedly orthodox in his views, he strongly op-
posed tiie Lutheran hierarchy, and was in 1856
removed from the board of theological examiners
and in 1S5S deprived of his profes.sorship. In
1865 he assisted in founding the Protestanten-
verein. The more important of his works are his
Apostelgeschichte (2d ed., 2 vols., 1859) ; Die
Geschichte Jesu (1859); Schleiermaohci' als
Theolog (1862) ; and Doktor Martin Luther: ein
Volksbuch (1883). Consult his autobiography,
edited by Studt (Kiel, 1891).
BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, boum'g-ir-ten-
krcTo'ze-i.is. LiDWiG Friedkich Otto (1788-1843).
A (ierman theologian. He was born at ilerse-
burg, July 31, 1788, and died at Jena, Jlay 31,
1843. He studied theology at Leipzig, and in
1810 became imiversity preacher. In 1812 he was
appointed professor extraordinary of theology at
Jena, in 1817 full professor of theology, and
always distinguished himself as a champion of
religious liberty, on behalf of which he wrote
various treatises. In 1820 appeared his Lntro-
dueliou to the tiitudy of Dogntafies (Leipzig,
1820), a work of considerable originality and
wealth of thought. Jlore complelc exhibitions
of his opinions are to be found in his Manuiil of
Christian Ethics (Leipzig, 1826) ; Outlines of
Biblical Theology (Jena. 1828) ; and Otit lines of
Protestant Dogmatics (.Tena, 1830). In 1831-32
he published a Text-Boo}!, of the History of Doc-
trines; in 1834, a work on Hehlciermacher. His
Method of Thought, and His Value; and also
Considerations on Certain Writings of Lanien-
nnis. After his death. Kimmel ])ublished the
whole of his exegetical prelections on the Gospels
and Pauline Epistles, and H. Hase completed
from his notes his Compendium der cliristlichen
Dognieitgeschichle (2 vols., Leipzig, 1840-46).
Baumgarten was conspicuous for the breadth
and solidity of his learning, the originality of his
spirit, and the acuteness of his understanding,
but was nevertheless deficient in clear and vivid
expression. He attached himself to no school,
theological or philosophical. At an early period
he had been greatly influenced by the meta-
physics of Schelling, from which, however, he
ultimately emancipated himself. His thinking
was to a certain extent rationalistic, but on the
whole approached more closely to the direction of
the spiritual Schleiermaeher.
BAUMGARTNER, boum'giirt-ner, Alex-
ander ( 1841 — ). A Swiss Jesuit writer, bom at
Saint Gall. He entered the Jesuit order in
1860, and completed his theological studies at
Munster, Maria-Laach, and Ditton (England).
He then studied Scandinavian literature in Co-
penhagen and Stockholm. In several of his
works he seeks to depreciate the German clas-
sicists. His writings of this character include:
Ooethes Jngend (1879): Coethe und i-ichiller
(1886) : and Der Alte ron Weimar (1886). He
has also written a translation from the ancient
Icelandic of Eystein Asgrimsson; a festival play
on the Spanish poet, Calderon ( 1881 ) ; Long-
felloics Dichtungen (1878) ; and a history of the
world's literature in eight volumes (1897).
BAUMGARTNER, Andreas, Baron von
(1793-1865). An Austrian statesman and scien-
tist. He was born at Friedberg, in Bohemia, and
studied at the University of Vienna, where in
1S23 he became professor of physics. While
filling this office, he gave popular lectures on
Simdays u])on mechanics for artisans and oper-
atives, which met with much approbation. A
result of these lectures was his Mechanik in ihrer
Anwendung auf Kiinste und Geicerbe (2d ed.,
Vienna, 1323) and his Nalurlehre (Vienna,
1823). Ill health forced him to resign his pro-
fessorship, and he ^as appointed director of
the imperial porcelain manufactories, and after-
wards superintendent of the Austrian tobacco
manufactories. In the year 1846 the establish-
ment of the electric telegraph was committed
to him. and in the following year he was placed
in charge of the construction of the Austrian
railways. In 1848 he became Minister of Public
Works: in May, 1851, he was appointed Min-
ister of Commerce, and in December of the same
year Minister of Finance. In 1855 he was ap-
pointed president of the Austrian Academy of
Sciences, of which he had been vice-president for
a number of years, and in 1861 he was called to
the House of Peers of the Keichsrath. He pub-
lished, in 1802, Chcinic und Gesehichte der Him-
melskorpcr nach der Hpektralanalyse; in 1864,
Die mechanische Theorie der ^Yarme. Consult
Schriiter, Freiherr von Baumgartner, Einc Le-
bcnsskizzc (Vienna, 1886).
BAUMGARTNER, Gallus Jakob (1797-1869). A Swiss statesman and historian, born at Altstiitten (Canton of Saint Gall). He studied at Freiburg and Vienna, and was promi- nent in the political afl'airs of his canton, the revisicui of whose Constitution he promoted. As a mcml)er of various representative bodies of the canton and the Confederation, he was a leader of the Liberals until 1841, when he occasioned much surprise by his alliance with the Ultra-
