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CARNATION. 231 CARNEGIE. hence all such should be rejected. The rust is eaused by L'roiinices cariiophulliiius, and may be reco^iized by the blisters on the leaves. Later the blisters are ruptured and the reddish-brown spores escape. A diseased plant cannot be cured, and should be dujr out and destroyed. The spot, or blight, is due to the fungus Septoria dianthi. It may be recognised by the light-bro«-n spots, which later bear black dots near their centre. The stems also are attacked and the plant is unable to pcrfoi-m its proper functions. All of these diseases may be prevented by the thorough use of Bordeaux mixture, copper carbonate so- lution, or other fungicide (q.v.). The disease caused by insect punctures may be recognized by the pellucid spots in the leaves. The name stigmonose has been lately given it. Anything keeping thrips (q.v.), etc.. in check will prevent the disease. Great variation in liability to all the diseases is noticed in dilfcrent varieties. CARNAUBA (krir-noulia) PALM (Brazil- ian), or Carax.iba Palm {Copcmicia cerifera). A very beautiful species of South American palm. It ranges from the northern parts of Brazil to Argentina, and in some places forms vast forests. It attains a height of 20 to 40 feet, with a diameter of 8 inches : its timber is valuable, is used in Brazil for a great variety of jnirposes, and is exported for veneering. The fruit is black, and about the size of an olive: it is sweet, and is eaten both raw and prepared in various ways. Scales of wax cover the under side of the young leaves, and drop off when shaken. Being collected in this way. the wa.x is melted into masses, and is often used to adul- terate beeswax. It is exported and used in the manufacture of candles. Starch is obtained from the stems of the trees, and sugar from the sap. The fibres obtained from the leaves are valuable, being used for cordage, mats, hats, etc. The tree withstands drought to a remarkable decree, and is said to flourish on slightly saline soil. It is hardy only in the warmest parts of the I'nitcd States. CARNAVAL DE VENISE, kar'n-i'val' de va'nez' I Fr., carnival of Venice). Originally a Venetian street air. It was heard by Paganini on one of his early tours through Italy (beginning 1805) and was elaborated by him into its pres- ent form. In Paris, on December 9, 195.3, an opera by Ambroise Thomas was produced hearing this title, and having the original air as a motif of the overture. CARNE, kiir'nfi', Loiis JIarciex, Count de (lSn4-7i>). A French publicist, bom at Quim- per. In 18.30 he was elected to the Chamber of Deputies, and though opposed to M. Guizot's foreign policy, he accejjted the presidency of the commercial department of foreign affairs in 1847, but lost this post after the Revolution of 1848. He became a member of the Academy in 1S63. Carne was a frequent cnntributor to the litrue dot Deux Moiides and other journals, and publislied numerous works, of which the best known are Vves sur I'hi.itoire coiitemporaine (2 vols., 18.33) ; Etudes sur les fondateurs de I'unit^ franraise (2 vols., 18.56) ; Etudes sur Vhistoire du gouverncment repr^sentatif en France, de ?7W» A 1S',H (2 vols.. 1855) : L'Europe et le Second Empire (18G5I ; Les etnts de Bre- tagne et I'administration de cette province jusiju'en nS!> (2 vols., 18C8) ; and Souvenirs do ma jeuncsse au temps de la restauralion (1872). CARNE'ADES (Gk. KapieiSits ) (c.214-129 n.c. I . A (Jrcck philosopher, the founder of the New Academy. He was born at ('yrene. in Africa, and studied in Athens under Diogenes the Stoic, but attached himself to the Academy and opposed the <logniatism of the Stoa, setting up against their certainty of knowledge simple proba- bility. According to him, the senses and un- derstanding give no certain basis of knowledge, and thcrcfiuc our inferences based on them are only i)robabiIities which may not correspond to the real nature of things, and are therefore no certain tests of truth. On the ethical side, he held that these probabilities were a sutlicient guide for life, for the common agreement in men's sensations and experiences must repre- sent in some degree the truth. Carneades en- joyed a gieat reputation in Athens. In B.C. 155 he was sent v ith the Stoic Diogenes and the Peripatetic Critolaus on an embassy to Rome, where he attracted great attention by his elo- quence. We hear that he argued before Galba and Cato the Censor, in praise of justice, and the next day undertook to disprove his argu- ments of the previous day, and so to establish his doctrine of the uncertainty of knowledge. To Cato such intellectual jugglery seemed danger- ous, and he therefore had the ambassador dis- missed, that the Roman youth might ntit be cor- rupted. Carneades left no writings behind him, with the exception of certain letters mentioned by Diogenes Laertius to Ariarathes, King of Cap- padocia. See New Academt. CARNEGIE, kiirneg^, Andrew (1837—). An .American manufacturer and pliilanthropist, born in Dinifermline, Fifeshire, Scotland. He came to the United States in 1848, and began his career as a weaver's assistant in a eotton-factoiy at Allegheny, Pa. Here his weekly earnings at first amounted to little more than one dollar. At the age of fourteen he became a telegraph mes- senger boy in the Pittsburg (Pa.) otiice of the Ohio Telegrai)h Company. He improved his spare time in learning to telegraph, and a few years later he entered the service of the Pennsyl- vania Railroad, and soon received a position as a telegraph operator. From this position be ad- vanced by successive promotions to tluit of super- intendent of the Pittsburg division of the system. It was during tliis period that he liccanK' inter- ested in the organization of the V(iodruff Sleep- ing Car Comjiany, the success of which laid the foundation of his fortune, while careful invest- ments in oil lands near Oil City. Pa., increased his means. During the Civil War he rendered valuable services to the War Department as superintendent of military railroads and Govern- ment telegraph lines in the East. After the war he entered actively into the development of iron-works of various kinds, and established at Pittsburg such important iiiduslries as the Key- stone Bridge Works and the I'nicm Iron Works. It was in 1868 that he introduced into this coun- try the Bessenu'r process of making steel. In 1888 he was the principal owner of the Home- stead Steel Works, and had a controlling interest in seven other large steel plants. His interests were consolidated in IH99 in th" Carnegie Steel Company, which in 1901 was merged into the