CAXCULUS. 22 tion, as all the symptoms are deceptive in cer- tain eases. The most striking (and. perhaps, the most trustworthy) evidence of stone in the Madder, apart from the testimony of the sound (see Lithotomy), is smarting and burning pain experienced after the bladder has been emptied, together with occasional temporary stoppage in the flow of urine. The correct ^ippreciation of all the symptoms, however, demands the famil- iarity with such cases that comes from surgical experience. The chief varieties of urinary calculus, with respect to chemical composition, are : ( 1 ) Uric acid (red deposit) : (2) urates of ammonia, soda, lime, etc. (brick-dust sediment) ; (3) phosphates of ammonia and magnesia, lime, etc.: (4) oxalate of lime: (5) carbonate of lime ichierty in domestic animals); (6) cystin ; (7) xanthie oxide (a very rare form, discovered by Dr. Marcet). Calculi are frequently found to be composed of numerous successive layers, each having a perfectly distinct chemical composi- tion. Urates and phosphates in particular fre- quently succeed each other, and form what is called an alternating calculus. When calculus has once fairly formed in the urinarj' passages, no absolute cure exists except the removal of it, if possible, from the body (see Lithotomy; LiTHOTRiTY; and Nephrotomy") ; but in the stage of gravel, and still more in the earlier stages detected by careful examination of the urine, much may be done to check the tendency to this distressing and dangerous malady. The chief remedies consist in careful regulation of the diet and mode of living, together with the use of solvents adapted to the particular form of deposit found to be habitually present. Con- sult Park, Surgery by American Authors (New York. 1901). See Urine. CAXCUTTA (Hind. Kali Ghata, the ghat, or landing-place leading to the temple of the goddess Kali). The capital of the Province of Bengal and metropolis of British India, situ- ated on the left bank of the river Hugli. an arm of the Ganges, in latitude 22° 3.5' N., and longi- tude 88° 27' E., about 100 miles from the sea by the river (Map: India, E 4). Calcutta is the headquarters of the Governor-General of India,
- ind the seat of the Indian Government, also of
the supreme courts of justice, of the court of appeals, and of a United States consulate. Tlie appearance of the city, as it is approached by the river, is very striking. On the left are the Botanical Gardens and the Bishop's College, a handsome Gothic edifice, erected by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts; on the right is the suburb of Garden Reach, with its handsome country seats and beautiful gardens ; farther on are the Govern- ment dockyards and the arsenal; beyond these are the Maidan Esplanade, the favorite place of resort of the flite of Calcutta for their evening drive, the Eden Gardens, with their beautiful tropical trees and plants, and the splendid zoological gardens. Here, near the river, lies Fort William, the largest fortress in India, occupying, with the out- works, an area of about half a mile in diameter. It is garrisoned by European and native soldiers, mounts 619 guns, and its armory contains 80,- 000 stands of small arms. Facing the esplanade, among other fine buildings, is the Government CALCUTTA. House, a magnificent palace erected by the Mar- quis of Wellesley. Beyond this, extending north- ward along the river-bank, is the Strand, two miles in length, and forty feet above low water, with various ghats, docks, and landing-stages for ocean liners. It is adorned with many fine buildings, including the custom-liouse, the new Mint, and other Government olliccs : and the ap- pearance given by these and other edifices has gained for Calcutta the appellation of 'City of Palaces.' Among its other places of interest men- tion may be made of the principal court of justice, the town hall, a fine building, the Ben- gal and United Service Clubs, Writers' Build- ing, Bank of Bengal. Jesuits' College, medical college, university, the Indian and the Economic nmseums, theatres, the Y. M. C. A. Building, be- sides various churches, mosques, Hindu temples, and pagodas, and numerous bazars. There are a number of monuments throughout the city, the most notable being those erected to the Marquis of Wellesley and Sir David Ochterlony. While the European quarter of the town is distin- guished for its fine public buildings and commo- dious dwelling-houses, the quarters occupied by the natives present a very dift'erent appearance, their houses being, in most instances, built of mud, or bamboo and mats, and the streets nar- row and unpaved. The cyclone of November, 1867, and that of .June, 1870. while very destruc- tive — in the first instance destroying 30.000 na- tive houses — made room for considerable im- I)rovement. New and wider streets have been opened through crowded quarters and brick houses are replacing the huts. In 1852 Calcutta was erected into a municipal- ity, the proprietors paying assessments, and electing commissioners to apply the proceeds of these assessments in cleansing, imjiroving. and embellishing the town. The water-supply of Cal- cutta is good. Formerlx** the water was kept in large tanks, interspersed throughout the city, whence it was l)orne by water-caniers or bdhis- ties in large leatlicr buys. Since the year ISli."), however, excellent water has been obtained from the Hugli, about 15 miles above Calcutta, where it is filtered and sent down by pipes in the usual way. The works were further improved after 1888. and now yield a daily supply of 20,000.000 gallons. The result of this and of a system of underground drainage with an outlet in the Salt Lake' has been a marked improvement in the health of the city, althougli niurc is to be de- sired in this direction, one-fourth of the wards remaining unsewered. A few progressive wards dispose of garbage by modern incinerators. Gas and electric lighting have taken the place of the oil lamps formerly in general use, and there are many miles of street-car lines. A canal girds a part of the city beyond the circular road. The principal scientific and literary societies of Calcutta are the Bengal Asiatic Society, founded in 1784 by Sir W. .Tones, possessing a finelil)rary. and a valuable and extensive museum : the Be- thune Society, for the promotion of intercourse between European and native gentlemen : the Dalhousie Institute, for the literary and social improvement of all classes of the community: the Bengal Social Science .Association. The Uni- versity of Calcutta was founded in 1857. on the same basis as the London University, and exer- cises functions over Bengal, the Northwest Prov- inces, Oudh, and the Central Provinces. Col-
