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CHALK FORMATION. 463 CHALLONEK. CHALK FORMATION. See Cretaceous SvSlt.M. CHALKSTONE, Lord. A character which Garrick himself impersonated most successfully in his play Lethe. CHALLEMEL-LACOTJR, shal'mel' la'kCor', Pall AmaM) ( )^-"-!'i't ■ A I'rench publicist and politician. He became professor of pliilosophy at the Lyceum of Pau in 184S), and at the time of the coup d'etat, while holding a similar position at the Lyceum of Limoges, was arrested because of his pronounced Republican opinions. After a few months of imprisonment, he was expelled from France, ilc went to Belgium, where he lec- tured on literature, and thence to Germany and Italy. In 1856 he became professor of French literature at the Polytechnic Institute of Zurich, and in 1.S59, being amnestied, returned to France. He soon became known as one of the ablest con- tributors to the Temps, the Revue iloderne, and other intluential journals. For a short time he was editor of the I'ecue des Deux Moiides. After the fall of the Empire he became prefect of the Department of the Rhone. He was elected deputy (1S72), Senator (ISTGl. president of the Senate (1893). He was, from 1880 to 1882, Ambas- sador to England, and became Jlinister of For- eign Alfairs in 1883. He translated Hitter's Oesrhich'e der Philosophie, and edited the M'orks of iladanie d'Epinay, the friend of Rousseau. His essays were collected as Etudes et reflections d'un pessi>nif:te (1901). CHALLENGE (OF. cTialenge, chalonge. It. calogna, accusation, from Lat. calumiUa, false accusation, from calvi, to deceive). In criminal law, a request or demand to fight with deadly weapons. Xo set phrase or form of words is necessary to constitute a challenge. Any lan- guage which, when connected with the circum- stances of a quarrel and the conduct of the par- ties, shows an intention to invite or solicit a meeting in order to fight with deadly weapons, amounts to a challenge. Giving a challenge, or knowingly bearing one, or even inciting to a challenge, is a criminal offense at common law. The tendency of modern statutes is to subject all persons connected with a challenge to severe criminal punishment, and to disqualify them from holding public office thereafter. See Dl'ELIXG. In civil procedure, a challenge is a formal exception taken to one or more jurors. When exception is taken to the entire panel, it is called a challenge to the arruy. or to the panel, or a motion to set aside the panel, or to quash the array. A challenge is said to he for cause, when it is based upon a state of facts which, if established, renders the juror incomj)etent, as that he is pecuniarily interested in the case, or disqualified by reason of age, sex, or mental condition. A challenge is said to be to the finer, when founded on a charge that the juror is biased or subject to some improper influence. A peremptory challenge is one for which no reason need be assigned. The niunber of per- emptory challenges, and the criminal cases in which they are allowed, are regulated by statute. Challenges are to be made after the appearance of the jurors and before they are sworn. See .Jury. CHALLENGER EXPEDITION. A scien- tific exploration of the 0))en sea sent out by the British Government in 1872-76. In 1872 the Challenger, a corvette of 2306 tons, was com- pletely fitted out and furnished with every scien- lilic appliance for e.amining the sea from surface to bottom, e.g. with natural - history workroom, chemical laboratory, and aquarium. The ship was placed in charge of a naval survey- ing stair under Captain Xares and of a scien- tific stair, Svith Prof. Wyville Thomson (q.v. ) at their head, for the purjjo.se of sounding the depths, mapping the basins, and determining the phj-sical and biological conditions of the Atlan- tic, the Southern, and the Pacific Oceans. During three and a half years the Challinger cruised over 68,900 nautical miles. Investigations were made at 362 stations, at each of which were determined the depth of channel, the bottom, surface, and intermediate temperatures, currents, and fauna, and the atmospheric and meteorologi- cal conditions. The route was by ^Madeira, the Canaries, the West Indies, Nova Scotia, Ber- mudas, Azores, Cape Verde, Fernando Noronha, Bahia, Tristan d'Acunha, Cape of Good Hope, Kcrguelen, Melbourne, the Chinese Sea, Hong Kong, .Japan, Valparaiso, Straits of Magellan, Montevideo, Vigo, and Portsmouth. Between the Admiralty Islands and Japan the Challenger made her deepest sounding, 457.5 fathoms. Con- sult WjTille Tliomson and Dr. John Murray, edi- tors of the copious Reports on the Scientific Re- sults of the Voyaqe of E. 31. S. Challenger (50 vols., London, 1880-95). They fall into a Nar- rative (2 vols., 1882-85) ; ZoOlogy (30 vols., 1880-89) : Physics and Chemistry (3 vols., 1884- 89): Botany (1885-86). A popular narrative of tlic cruise is Moseley's A Naturalist on the Challenger (London, 1879). CHALO-IS, jAiiES (1803-82). An English astronomer. He was born at Braintree, Essex, and was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He became Plumian professor of astronomy and experimental philosophy at Cambridge in 1836, and from then until 1861 was also director of the Cambridge observatory. His labors were di- rected principally to the determination of the positions of sun, moon, and planets, with the object of increasing tabular accuracy. Among the valuable improvements devised by him were the collimating eye-piece (1850), the transit- reducer, and the meteoroscope. In addition to 225 contributions to scientific publications, he published several independent works on astron- om}". mathematics, and physics. CHAL^LONER, Richard (1691-1781). An English Catholic prelate. He was the son of a dissenter, but was brought up among Roman Catholics and sent to an English college at Douai, where he finally became professor of divinity and vice-rector. In 1730 he joined the English mission in London, and on the death of Dr. Benjamin Petre, in 1758, he became vicar apostolic of the London district. During much of his residence he was subjected to persecutions. He was the author of numerous controversial and devotional works, the most popular one Deing The Garden of the Houl (1740), which has been translated into various languages and con- tinues to be the most popular prayer-book amon? English Catholics. As an antidote to Fox's well-known Martyrology, he wrote Memoirs of Mtssionary Priests and Other Catholics of Both Sexes that Have Suffered Death in England on Religious Accounts (1741-42). He published a