flooded lands, which enables them to be incessantly
cultivated by a dense pi)]iulation. The larjiest
lowland tributary of the Yang-tse-kiang is the
Han, which drains the interior valley of the
double Kuenluu extension.
North of the watershed of the Yang-tse-kiang, occupying the northern (juarter or third of all China, is the vast basin of the Hoang-ho, a river hardly inferior to the Yang-tse-kiang in size or economic importance. It also forces its way out from its lofty Tibetan birthplace through hun- dreds of miles of mountain gorges, makes a long detour to the north, then Hows for a great dis- tance due south, after which it turns abruptly to tae east, and finally flows due northeast to the Gulf of Pe-chi-li. Down this vast stream come floods from the melting of snows or from sudden storms in the mountains along its upper course; and frequently so overwhelming are the resultant inundations, in spite of marvelous works for the restraint of the waters, that thousands of lives are lost, and sometimes widespread famine fol- lows the desolation of the land.
While mountains and hills fill the western two-thirds of China, and cultivation is possible only in more or less spacious valleys, the eastern third of the country, except near the south coast, is mostly level plain, divided into the two vast lower basins of the Yang-tse-kiang and Ho-ang-ho, plus those of some lesser sea-flowing rivers. This plain reaches inward for 500 miles on the Yang- tse-kiang and 600 on the Ho-ang-ho, and is so low that these rivers, as far up as Hankow or Si- ngan-fu. are only about 150 feet above the sea. Hence their current becomes very slow, a freshet overspreads broad areas, the silt brought down is rapidly and evenly deposited, and the rivers have in times past extended over their respective plains and formed vast deltas. The Ho-ang-ho has repeatedly shifted its main mouth from north to south of the Shan-tung Peninsula and back again. In addition to this alluvial deposition, vast quantities of wind-blown dust from the deserts and mountain-sides of Tibet and Mon- golia have for ages been falling upon the ever- growing coast plains, constituting what is known as the "loess.' (See paragraph on Geology.) Sub- ordinate drainage basins of less extent are those of the Pei-ho, in Pe-chi-li; the Hwai-ho, in Ho-nan, consumed in irrigation works; and the small coast streams cut off from the Y'ang- tse-kiang basin by the coast range that runs from Hong Kong to Xing-po. The coast is broken with many bays and gulfs, and a number of fair- ly good harbors. On the north is the Gulf of Pe-chi-li, with its arm. I-ao-tung Gulf. South of the mountainous Shantung Peninsula is the Yellow Sea. and in the south coast is the Gulf of -Tongking. Of islands, the largest is Hainan, off the southern coast.
The lakes of China are almost all near the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang. the largest hav- ing a circumference of about 220 miles, and named Tung-ting-hu, so called because it was con- sidered the cradle of the aboriginal kings. Po- yang hu, 00 miles long, has its outlet in the Yang-tse-kiang. and is famcms for its beautiful scenery and its picturesque islands. In this lake there are. in addition to those islands formed by nature, artificial floating islands on which farmers build habitations and raise crops, cattle, and fowls. The lakes of Kiangsu are important as reser^'oirs for the Grand Canal. The Grand Canal, running from Hang-chow to 'l"ien-(.sin, but practically serviceable through its feeders from Nanking to Peking, was formerly the route of the great fleet of vessels hearing the tribute of rice to the capital. Artificial rivers and canals greatly aid navigation in China. The Great Wall. The Chinese rarely use stone for architectural purposes, except in commemora- tive arches and bridges, and chiefly for trim- ming or paving; they are mueli given to the use of brick. The great wall is surfaced with brick. This wall, one of the most stupendous works ever conceived and executed by man, was pri- marily erected toward the close of the Third Cen- tury B.C., in sign of the destruction of the feudal .system in China, and of the unification of the many provinces into an empire by the first She-Hwang-Ti, or universal emperor, one of the Tsin diiasty. It has been preserved and ex- tended through many reignu with the futile idea of keeping back the Tartars. About the year 154", under the Ming Dynasty, its length was in- creased by about 300 miles. At the present time it is, along large parts of its course, little more than a mass of debris. It is 25 feet thick at the base and 15 feet at the top, with towers at inter- vals of about 100 yards. It is about 1250 miles long, stretching over high hills and very deep val- leys and across rivers. Beginning at the western frontier of Kiangsu, it follows the general east- ward trend of the mountains, making great bends north and south. In Shan-si it has a long loop embracing over half the province, and forming double walls many miles apart. It reaches the sea at Shan-hai-kwan.
Climate. China lies mainly in the north tem- perate zone, the extreme southern portion only be- ing within the tropics. Lying on the eastern side of the continent, with most of its area within the region of the prevailing westerly winds, it has a continental climate, with considerable range of temperature throughout the year, ex- cept upon the immediate seacoast. The mean annual temperature at Peking, in the north, is 51°, at Canton, in the south, 60°. At Peking the monthly range of temperature is from 79° in July to 2.3° in January, while at Canton the corresponding figures are 82° and 55°. The temperatures at Canton are greatly modified by the monsoon winds, to which the southern coast is exposed. Inland the range of temperature is much greater.
The rainfall is greatest on the south coast, where it often exceeds 100 inches annually, and diminishes northward. At Hong Kong it is 90 inches, at Peking 24 inches. It is greatest on the coast, and diminishes inland over the inhabited areas, though it is in most parts of China, and in most years, sufficient for the needs of agriculture; still, disastrous local droughts have occurred, and. owing to lack of means of communication, have caused serious famines. Most of the rain falls in the summer months, being brought by the southwest monsf)ons.
Flora. Tea, rice, and bamboo are the three most valuable vegetable jiroducts — the first for drinking ^not usually taken at meals), the sec- ond for food, and the third for the construction of habitations and implements. The vast aren and climatic conditions of China allow a won- derful variety both of natural products and of products grown by man. Besides the timber forests, which are richest in the mountainous
