Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 04.djvu/779

CHOCOLATE. 681 CHOIiU Mexicans. It was introduced into England about 1657. lu the time of Charles 11. it was still a great lu.xury, costing Gs. Sd. per pound. Good chocolate is externally smooth, firm, and shining — not gritty in the fracture — easily sol- uble, aromatic; not viscid after having been liquefied and cooled, but oily on the .surface, and leaves no sediment of foreign substances. Clioco- late is adulterated in man)- ways, by mixing it with rice-meal, oat-meal, flour, potato-starch, roasted hazel-nuts or almonds, and with benzoin, storax, etc., in place of vanilla. CHOCTAW. An important lluskhogean con- federacy, formerly occui)yiug southern Missis- sippi and the adjacent parts of Alabama. They were sedentary and agricultural, slow and un- warlike in disposition, contrasting strongly with their cousins, the restless Chickasaw. Througli- out the colonial period they generally sided with the French, but were always doubtful allies. They flattened the head and had peculiar burial rites, the body being disinterred after a few days, when the bones were picked clean by old men appointed for the purpose, and after- wards presened in their houses. About the close of the Revolution they began to drift westward into Louisiana. In 1830 they ceded all their remaining lands east of the llississippi and re- moved to their present country in the Indian Ter- ritorj', where, under the style of the 'Choctaw Nation,' they now have an autonomous form of government similar to that of the Cherokee (q.T. ). There are now about 20,000 'citizens' in the nation, of whom perhaps two-thirds may be of pure or mixed Choctaw blood. There are also some hundreds still remaining in Missis- sippi. CHODKIEWICZ, KodTv^-aMch, Jan Kabol (I5C01tj21 ) . Polish general. He took part in the campaigns against Wallachia, in 1002 re- ceived command of the Polish aniiy in Livonia, and in 160.5 severely defeated Charles IX. of Sweden near Kirchholm. Because of the lack of adequate funds, he was unable properly to follow up this victory, and in 1611 he concluded a truce with the Swedes. He was sent by Sigis- mund III. to Russia to prosecute the war there in behalf of the Pseudo-Demetrius, but, hampered by the disorganization of his army, was com- pelled to relinquish Moscow, and ultimately re- turned to Poland. He commanded in 1620-21 an army against the Turks. Consult the biography by Xariiszewicz (new ed., Leipzig, 1S37). CHODOWIECKI, ko'di-vi-ets'kS, Daniel Xi- KOLArs (I72C-1S01). A German painter and engraver, bom in Danzig, Yest Prussia. At first a merchant in Danzig and Berlin, he afterwards studied painting in the latter city; was for a time a miniature-artist, but became chiefly suc- cessful as an engraver. He was appointed direc- tor of the Academy of Plastic Arts in Berlin in 1793. He executed about three thousand engrav- ings, of which the best are genre studies of every- day life. Admirable plates were prepared by him for Lessing's .1/inna ron Barnhelm, Gellert's Fahein, Schiller's Riiuhcr. and German versions of Don Quixote and several plays of Shakespeare. Fine specimens of his work are "The Departure of .lean Calas." and "General Zieten Remaining Seated in the Presence nf tlic King." The Berlin Museum contains two unimportant pictures in oil, and the Berlin Academy a number of wash and pen-and-ink drawings. Consult: Engelmann. Vlwdoicieckis siimtliche Kupfcrstichc (Leipzig, 1857; supplement, 1860); and Meyer, Chodo- wiecki, dcr Pcintre-Oraveur (Berlin, 1887). CHODZKO, KOdz'ko, Leoxaki) Jakob (1800- 71). . I'lilish historian, born at Oborek (Gov- ernment of Vilna). After study at the Univer- sity of Vilna^ he traveled with Prince Michael Clecphas Oginski (1765-1831), who had com- manded a regiment in the insurrection of 17!)4. Having taken up residence in Paris, he received the appointment of adjutant to the Marquis de Lafayette because of his activity in connection with the July Revolution ( 1830) . During the in- surrection of 1863-64 in Russian Poland, he was agent at Paris of the Revolutionary Government. His publications include Observations xur la Po- lognc et Ics Fulonnis (1827), designed as an in- troduction to Ozinski's Memoires sur lu Pologne et les Polonais depuis l^SS a ISlo (Paris, 2 vols., 1826), and La Pologne historique, Utteraire, monumentalc et pittoresque (2 vols., 1835-37; 8th ed., 3 vols., 1854-57). CH(ENIX, ke'niks (Lat., from Gk. jcoavf, choinix). A Greek measure of capacity, varying in size under different standards. In Athens, according to the system introduced by Solon, it was equivalent to 4 cotylse (cotyle=0.27 liter), 1.08 liters, L14 quarts. In the later Athenian system, established about B.C. 100, the cotyle was equivalent to 0.2047 liter, the choenix to 6 cotyle, 1.228 liters, 1.297 quarts. CHOEPHORI, ko-ef'6-ri. The. The second tragedv of the Orestan trilogy by ^^schylus (q.v.)." CHCERILXJS, kerl-lus (Lat., from Gk. XotpO.oQ, C'hoirilos). An Athenian dramatist of the late Sixth and early Fifth centuries B.C., the rival of Pratinas, Plirynichus, and .Eschylus. Tradition says that he was preeminent in satvric dramas. The lexicographers attribute to him 160 plays in all, and report that he won thirteen victories, but scholars regard the number as too large. It has been conjectured that he was the first to reduce tragedies to writing. CHCERILUS OF SAMOS ( c.470 B.C. - ?) . The author of an I'pic poem called the Ilepffijfs, Persci^, or liepCTixd, Pcrsika, descriptive of the Persian wars. He was a friend of Herodotus and of Lysander the Spartan, and latterly we find him at the Court of Archelaiis of Jlacedonia. Turning from the old mythology, he was the first epic poet to choose his subject from the history of the time. His work received the honor of pub- lic recitation together with the poems of Homer, and was admitted to the Epic Canon, later to be ejected by the grammarians of Alexandria. The fragments are included in Kinkel. Epicorum Grce- roriim Friigmenta (Leipzig, 1878). CHOG'SET. See Cunneb. CHOIR, kwir (older forms quire, gitier, queer; modern spelling affected by Fr. chosur, Lat. chorus, from Gk. xop6^, choros, whence the w.d is derived). Strictly speaking, tlic choir is the part of the church occupied by the singers, wher- ever that may be : but at different periods in church architecture it came to designate two dis- tinct sections; (1) In early ihurches, the part midway between the upper end or sanctuary, occupied by the higher clerOT. and the lower end, or nave and aisles, occupied by the laity; (2) in I