CHKONOSCOPE. 720 CHRYSANTHEMUM. of instrument lias been employed extensively in physiological work, and there are numerous mod iliuat ions now in use. Tuning-forks (see Tuni?<-g-fork ; Chroxo- 0U.VP11 ) are also employed extensively for meas- uring- small intervals of time, as they furnish an extremely accurate means for making such determinations. A device used by Pouillet was a circular disk of glass on which" was a smaller circle of tinfoil and a narrow strip extending to the circumference. This was used to com- l)lete an electric circuit with a galvanometer, the principle involved being that with a con- tinuous current for an extremely brief s])ace of time, the strength of the current and consequent- ly the de(lecti(m of the galvanometer is projior- tional to the time it is flowing. In the Xobel chronoscope, extensively used in artillery tests, there are eight bronze rotating disks, each covered with a strip of blackened jia- ]icr, on which a record is made by means of an electric spark. This instrument is used to measure both internal and external velocities, as is also the Schultz chronograph, which employs a tuning fork and electromagnets. The velocity at dif- ferent distances is obtained by having" the cir- cuit opened or closed by means of the wires of a screen through which t!ie iirojectilc passes. In an instrument for a like purpose, the inven- tion of Crehore and Squier, the record is ob- tained by means of a beam of jiolarized light fall- ing on a rapidly revolving photographic plate. In this instrument the plane of polarization is shifted by the action of a magnetic field imiduced on closing the circuit. When a current Hows the beam is rotated so that it does not atl'eet the plate, leaving a blank in the path traced by the beam. A tuning-fork is used to keep tiack of the time, and by means of the wa-y line traced by it the time between interrupted points on the tracing of the first beam may be ascertained. The Boulenge chronograph is now much used in artillery tests of velocity, and depends upon the distance a body falls in a given interval of time. It will be found discussed and illustrated in the article on Ballistics. The clironosco])e and chronograph, terms which are more or less interchangeable, are also con- structed in numerous other forms, in S(mie of which, for example, the principle of the pendu- lum is employed, and one is now able to measure time with an extreme degree of accuracy. The instruments of Fizeau and Foucault to measure the velocity of light must be considered among the early forms of those instruments. In the f<irmer a wheel with ])r()jcc(ing teeth w.a.s used to interrupt a beam of light which was sent to a distant mirror and back. The speed of the mirror was so adjusted that the beam of light which is transmitted through the space between two teeth is received after reflection in the next open space, and the velocity determined by ascertaining the distance trnveled by the beam and the time consumed in the fra<'tion of a revo- lution of the toothed wheel. I'oucault used a revolving mirror, as did also Michelson, whose determinations are considered most reliable and accurate. Consult Muller-Pouillet, Lchrbuch dcr Phiisilc (Brunswick, 1886). See^ Ballistics; Ciirono(;r.imi : Velocity of Liqiit. CHRUDIM. KrHo'dem. A town of Bohemia, Austria, situated on the river Chrudimka, 74 miles by rail from Prague (Map: Austria, E 2). It has a number of churches, among them one dating from the Thirteenth Century, and numer- ous industrial establishments. Poimlation, in 1890, 12,128; in 1900, 13,017. CHRYSAL (krls'(il), or the Ai>vkntire.s of
GriNKA. A novel by Charles Johnstone, pub-
lished in four volumes, in London ( 17(iO-ti.')) . Be- fore the last two voUinies ai)peare(l, the first two ran tlirough several editions. An excellent edi- tion was brought out in London in 1821, in three volumes. The book gives an account of the lives and characters of those into whose hands Chrysal (the gold piece) passes. It contains a keenly satirical estimate of the author's contemporaries under this allegorical disguise. Consult: Scott. Misctlltiiiicf^ (Edinburgh, lSGl-()2) ; also Davis, Olio of liiblioyiaphical and Literary Anecdotes (London, 1S14). CHRYSALDE, krc-'zjUd'. Frieml and confi- dant of . iolplie. in Jloli&re's VICcolc dex frmmes (q.v.). He closes the piece with the optimistic line. "Give thanks to God, who does all for the best." CHRYSALE, krt^zal'. The henpecked hus- band of Philaniinte in Jlolitre's Lea femmes sni:anlcs. He is the type of a hon hourgeois, and, though under the domination of his pre- iieu9e wife, is inspired by the love he bears his daughter Henriette to assert his authority, and save her from the base Trissotin (q.v.). CHRYSALIS, kris'a-lis. See Butterflies ANu Moths. CHRYSANDER, kre'.san-der, Friedrich (lS2(i — I, A (icrman writer on the science of music. He was lioni in Liibthcen, Me<'klenburg- Sehwerin, and studied philosophy in Rostock, but later gave up his time entirely to musical study. He has contributed extens'ively to the literature of this subject, and is especially well known as the editor of Handel's works, his edi- tion liaA-ing been the first to be prejiared from the original sources. The edition was really pub- lished by Clirysander as a private enterprise, more particularly after the death of his col laborator, Gcrvinus. in 1871, when, cquiiiped with a simple hand-press and assisted by only one printer and one engraver of music, he continued the ])ublication of the work at his own expense, in this way comjileting all but three volumes. Foremost among the striking improvements in- troduced by Chrysander into this famous edition are the following: A new German translation of the original Knglish text, emjiliasizing the re- lation betwiH'n word and tone: the concentration of the dramatic element; the restoration of the arias: and. most important of all, the restora- tion of the original Handelian orchestra. CHRYSANTHEMUM (Lat., from Ok. xi>vtr- dfOe/jLov, cliriiSdiiHiiiiion. from x/'""^*! chrysos, gold + iv8e/wp, inilhcmon, llmverl. A genus of plants belonging to the natural order Composita;. The s]iecies arc natives of northern Europe, the Canary Islands. East Africa, and the mountain and boreal region of Asia. About one hundred and fifty species have been described. The plants of this genus are characterized by heterogamous heads, with ligulate ray flowers in one row and mostly ])istillati' and sterile, perfect ilisk llorets. and naked Hat or hemispherical receptacles. The
