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CONGREGATIONALISM. 281 CONGREGATIONALISM. torically considered, American and English Con- gregational theological development has been along Calvinistic lines; but, as in other Protest- ant bodies, the peculiar problems of seventeenth- centurv debate have ceased to arouse interest. Calvinistic and Arminian interpretations of the way of salvation, as far as there is present significance in either interpretation, are regarded as alike acceptable. The doctrinal position of modern Congregationalism is that common Prot- estantism which is loiown as 'Evangelical.' Its ministry and churches, as a whole, lunvover, Mhile holding broadly to the sj'stem of Christian doctrine characteristic of historic Protestantism, have been more disposed in recent years than many Protestant bodies to welcome the new interpretations of Christian truth, and of its sources, which cvirrent theological discussions in Europe and America have presented. Officers and Support. — Early Congregational- ism, following what Avas believed to be the Scrip- ture model, held that a completely organized local church should have five classes of officers — a 'pastor' and a 'teacher,' both of whom should preach and administer the sacraments; a 'ruling elder,' who should aid in church discipline; 'deacons,' to care for the poor and assist at the Lord's Table: and 'widows,' to aid in nursing among the sick. But little of this elaborateness of organization survived the end of the seven- teenth century, and by that time the officers of a Congregational churcli had liecome reduced almost universally to a pastor and several dea- cons. The development of the nineteenth century added to these officers in practically every church a clerk, a treasurer, and a Sunday-school super- intendent; and, in churches of siz?, a 'prudential committee,' to serve with the other officers as advisory to the pastor. In early Congregation- alism, the pastor, teacher, and ruling elder were salaried officers. Since the cessation of teachers and ruling elders, the pastor has been the only paid officer of an ordinary Congregational church. In the earliest Congregationalism everysvhere, and in English Congregational prac- tice always, the expenses of the church were met by some form of voluntary payment, by gifts, subscription, or more often in modern times by the rental of sittings in the place of worship. Modern American Congregationalism employs these voluntary methods exclusively. But dur- ing most of the Colonial history of New Eng- land the intimacy of relationship between Church and State was such that Church expenses were assessed upon the taxable property of all inhabi- tants not specially exempt, and such assessments were collectible like any other taxes. This con- tinued the practice in Connecticut till 1S18, and in Jlassachusetts till 1834. When there was but one church in a to^vnship, its pecuniary affairs were settled in the meeting of the legal voters of that towTiship. Where two or more churches existed in the township, it was sub- divided territorially into districts for voting and tax-raising, known as 'societies,' 'parishes,' or 'precincts.' The New England feeling that there should be no taxation without the consent of those taxed led, during the last third of the seventeenth centiry, to the assumption by the legal voters, by whom the minister's salar' was assessed and paid, of a right to concur in or re- ject the choice of a minister by the membership of the church, and established a dual system of entrance to the local pastorate, the election ot the church requiring the confirmation of the 'so- ciety.' In the general usage of New England, and to some extent in other parts of the I'nitcd States, this system has survived the loss of the right of public taxation for ecclesiastical pur- poses, and prevails at the present time. The ownership of the Iniildings used by the church and the determination and payment of (he salary to its minister, remain under the control of a voluntary local legal business corporation, ad- mission to which is secured by election, by rent- ing sittings in the church edifice, or in a variety of ways; and this corporation, still known as the 'society' or 'parish,' has a concurrent author- ity in the choice of a minister. English prac- tice has known nothing of this institution; and outside of New England the temporalities of the church have been largely placed in the hands of trustees chosen by the membership of the church, or the church itself has held title to its property and administered its pecuniary affairs. Even in New England the 'society' is falling into disuse in many places, the church itself se- curing the incorporation permitted by statute and assuming all the rights previously shared with the 'society.' Worship. — Early Congregationalism, in its sharp reaction from the imposition of a written liturgy, characteristic of the days of Elizabeth and the Stuarts, went to the extreme of reject- ing all written liturgy as unscriptural. Modern Congregationalism entertains no .such hostility, and a considerable degree of modification of the ])ublic services of Congregationalism, by respon- sive reading, united repetition of the Lord's^ Prayer and the Apostles' Creed, and develop- ment ot the musical aids to worship, has taken place in recent years. In accordance with its fundamental principle of local autonomy, Con- gregationalism recognizes the full right of each local church to order its worship as it sees best. But, whatever minor modifications have taken place, Congregational worship remains essential- ly non-liturgical. It makes the sermon central, and includes, as it has always done, the elements ot preaching, free prayer, the reading of the Word of God, and singing. Till about the mid- dle of the eighteenth century in America, and in the early Congregational practice of Great Brit- ain, only metrical translation of portions of Scripture were deemed appropriate to be sung in public worship, and the aid of musical instru- ments was rejected till about the same period : but since then full freedom in the use of hynms and musical aids has prevailed. Fellowship Betioeen the Churches. — While each congregation is autonomous, Congregation- alism believes that it is the duty of each local church to consult neighboring churches in mat- ters of importance. This feature of Congrega- tional practice has attained a larger development in America than in England, and is chiefly mani- fested by the 'advisory councils,' which Arnerican Congregationalism : . s employed since the timo of the first settlers on New England soil. Though given a place in the theoretic exposition of early English Congregationalism, the 'advisory coun- cil' of America has no exact counterpart in mod- ern British usage. Such ecclesiastical acts as the formation of a church, the settlement or dis- missal of a pastor, and the consideration of cases of discipline from which quarrel and divi