Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 05.djvu/458

COPYHOLD. 396 COPYING MACHINES. ordinary rules of succession. But the custom, wliati-vor it may ho, cannot be altered by the liiililiT (if the copyluiid; lie. cannot, fur instance, entail his land unless the custom warrants it. One practical distinction of much importance, drawn between freehold and copyhold land, is the mode in which it must be conveyed. An ordinary conveyance is ineffectual in regard to copyhold, and. indeed, would ojierate, like other attempts to break through the custom which forms the title, as a forfeiture. The owner comes to the steward of the manor, and by a s.ymbolical delivery, ac- cording as the custom may prescribe, surrenders the land to the lord of the manor, in order that it may be granted again to such person and on such terms as are desired, and as the custom authorizes. The steward, by a repetition of the symbolical delivery, transfers the copyhold to the person in question in terms of the surrender; and the transferee then pays the customary fine, and takes the oath of fealty. This is called con- veyance by surrender and admittance. In the case of an heir succeeding there is no surrender, but there is admittance only upon payment of the customary fine, and it is enforced by a cus- tomary penalty. A mortgage is effected by a surrender upon condition that the money is re- paid, and the admittance takes place only in event of failure of payment. A copyhold may in like manner be devised by will, the devisee being admitted on the death of the devisor. The inconveniences and loss accruing through the variety of customs to which copyhold lands are subject led the legislature to provide for their gradual extinction. By consent of the copy- hold commissioners, all the services due to the lord of the manor may be commuted for a fixed rent. The lord of every manor is also authorized to en- franchise, or convert into freehold, the copyhold lands by agreement with their owners, and either the lord or the tenant may compel enfranchise- ment on payment either of a fixed simi, where it is at the instance of the lord, or of an annual rent, where it is at the instance of the tenant, fixed in both cases b_v the commissioners. See Manor; Tenure; Serf; and consult: El- ton, Treatise on the Ltiii: of Copyholds and Cus- tomary Tenures of Land (2d ed., London. 1893) ; and Scriven, Treatise on Copyhold, Customary Freehold, etc. (7th ed., London, 1896). COPYING, A term applied in photography to the reproduction of paintings, engravings, manuscripts, maps, etc. A copying camera is usually employed, but any form of camera, where the distance between the lens and plate can be made sufficiently great, may be used for this pur- pose. The lens should be rectilinear, with a tol- erably wide angle of aperture, and slow plates are considered preferable. Care should be taken in developing to use a sufficient restrainer and camera, and suitable color-screens. It is important that the work or surface to be copied should be placed in a strong light, and exactly at right angles to the axis of the lens, which should be furnished with a small stop. These three conditions, it will be seen, are such as are calculated to insure density in the blacks of the negative, freedom from distortion, and sharpness at the edges of the picture. The copy- ing of oil-paintings seems to the amateur, at first sight, to present almost insuperable difficul- ties, on account of the reflected light from the varnish passing through the lens, and producing blaek patches on the negative. This may, how- ever, be completely avoided by the employment of a lens of long focus, which admits of the oblique pencils of light passing off without entering the camera, and suitalile color-screens. In copying transparent negatives, a somewhat different arrangement is required, as will appear from considering the following facts. Every ob- ject to be copied may be regarded, for the sake of illustration, as an assemblage of bright points, from each of which divergent pencils of rays are reflected, and suffer refraction on passing through the lens; an engraving or oil-painting is, in fact, in its relation to the sensitive surface, the source of light. In a negative, however, many of the parts of which are transparent glass, it is manifest the case is different, for if we suppose the sun or a luminous background to be placed behind the negative, that will act as the source of light, and any rays coming there- from will pass almost directly through those jjarts of the negative which are bare glass, to the lens ; thus producing the same effect as if the transparent parts were opaque, but luminous, and emitted divergent pencils of light. It is nec- essary, therefore, that the rays should be made to converge at those points where bare glass ex- ists, and this may be accomplished by employing what is called a condensing lens, by which means, negatives may be most successfully copied, by ])lacing an artificial light behind it, or still bet- ter, by reflected sunshine through it. Negatives are sometimes copied on glass by di- rect superposition in the ordinary printing frame, such as is used for printing photographs- on paper, being exposed to a gas-flame or other source of light, and then developed in the usual way. See Piiotograpuy. COPYING MACHINES. The various con- trivances for procuring duplicates of manu- scripts without the labor of transcribing them may be reduced to two classes. In the one, the writing is first made, and then copied; in the other, the copy and the original are produced at the same time. The essence of the first method is this: In writing the original, an ink is used .that is made for the ptir])ose, or common ink is thickened by the addition of a little sugar. When the writing is dry, a damped sheet of thirt tmsized paper is laid upon it, and over this a jiiece of oiled paper. The whole is then subject- ed to pressure, and the damped paper is found to have received an impression of the writing. It is of course the reverse of the original, but the thinness and transparency of the paper allows it to be read right on the other side. The machines for communicating the presstire are of various kinds. Some pass the sheets between rollers like the copper-plate press; others act on the princi- ple of the simple screw-press. A simjile plan is to wrap the sheets around a wooden roller of about an inch diameter, lay this upon a table, and roll it tinder a flat board, pressing all the while. In the second method of copying, pre- pared blackened or carbon paper is laid between two sheets of thin writing-paper. The writing is traced firmly on the upper sheet, with a steel or agate point, or common black-lead pencil, and the lines are foimd transferred in black from the blackened sheet to the paper adjacent. By having several of these blackened leaves, a number of copies may he produced at once, so that the method can be employed in duplicating invoices.