Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 05.djvu/833

CYTOLOGY. rai CZARNIECKI. charged from the pollen-tube into the embryo- sac; the nucleus of one of these cells unites with the nucleus of the egg and the first cell of the sporophyte is formed. It has recently been found that the second male cell often unites with the definite nucleus of the emliryo-sac formed by the fusion of the two polar nuclei, so that there is a 'double fertilizaliun.' Double fertilization has been observed in monocotyledons and dico- tyledons, but whether it is the usual method of fertilization is not entirely settled. While it is becoming conceded that the problems of heredity must be ultimately problems of the cell, nearly all the work of botanists along this line must be classed as morphological. See Cell (in plants) ; Embryology; Sex. CY'TOPLASM. See Cell (in plants). CYZ/ICtrS (Lat., from Gk. Kiifiras, Ki/zikos) . A colony of Miletus in the Propontis, founded probably about B.C. 676. on the south shore of the island of Arctonnesus, which has now become a peninsula, though in ancient times it was con- nected with the mainland by bridges. Its situa- tion and two good harbors made it early a prosperous town, while its strong position en- abled it to maintain its freedom. It was favored by the Romans, and after siistaining a long siege by Jlithridates it was made a free city, a privi- lege which it lost under Tiberius. The site is still covered with extensive ruins. It lies to the southeast of the island of Marmora, and about 70 miles southwest of Constantinople. CZACKI, chilts'ke, Tadeusz, Count (1765- 1813). A Polish writer. He was born at Poryek, Volhynia. At twenty he obtained an oHice in the Superior Court of Justice at Warsaw, and in 1788 was appointed to the Treasury Commission of the Diet. His interest in the economic welfare of his country impelled him to travel through Po- land and to produce a map of its river system. The development of navigation on the Dniester en- gaged his particular attention. When his prop- erty was confiscated at the second partition of Poland he became a professor at Cracow; but Paul I., to whose coronation he went as deputy from Volhynia, restored what he had lost. After this Czacki's whole life was devoted to the edu- cation of his countrymen. His plans for dis- seminating instruction in the Polish provinces of Russia, the people of which were extremely ignorant, met with the approval of Alexander I., and in 180.3 he was made inspector of the schools in the governments of Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiev. He gave, out of his various resources, about 500,000 thalers to various schools. The Gymnasium of Kremenetz, which he founded, was the main object of his care. For a genera- tion this institution was the spiritual centre of Poland, furnishing the champions of national self-consciousness against the deadening influ- ence of French pseudo-classicism. Accused of stirring up political discontent among his coun- trymen, Czacki went to Saint Petersburg in 1S07. and so ably defended himself that Alexander I. appointed him deputy of Prince Czartoryski, who was curator of public instruction in the Polish section of Russia. Czacki died at Dubno, and his collections passed into the hands of Czartoryski. His works were published in three volumes (Po- sen. 1843). They are in the main historical and arehspological. His most valuable work is a trea- tise On Lithuanian and Polish Laws (2 vols., Warsaw, 1800). CZAJKOWSKI. chi-kov'ske, Michal (1808- 80). A Polish novelist. He was born near Her- ditchev in the Ukraine, where, in 1831, he par- ticipated in the insurrection against Russia, and was compelled to llee to Paris. In 1840 a num- ber of Polish emigres sent him on a secret mis- sion to Turke}', and in 1851 he embraced Jloham- medanism. As Jlohammod Sadik he commanded a body of troops called the Cossacks of the >Sul- lan. He fought with distinction against the Rus- sians in 1853-54. Amnestied by Russia in 1873, he removed to Kiev. In consequence of an accu- sation of treason subsequently made against him, he committed suicide. Czajkowski obtained wide- celebrity through his stories of Cossack life, sev- eral of which have become extremely popular and have been translated into German, French, and English. CZAB, zar (Russ. tsari, Bohem. tsar, OChurch Slav, tsvsart, tsilsaril, through OHG. keisar, from Lat. Ccesar). The alternative title of the Russian Emperor; also written Tsae. During the Middle Ages the Emperor of the East and the JSIongol Khans appear under the title of Czars in Russian contemporary literature, while the rulers of the various Russian provinces are called grand dukes till the sixteenth century. In 1547, however, Ivan the Terrible caused him- self to be solemnly crowned Czar of Moscow. From this time the Russian monarchs called themsel<es by this title ujitil the conquest of Little Russia and Smolensk caused them to as- sume that of Czar of All the Russias. The word now became practically the equivalent of Em- peror; yet Peter I., in 1724, thought fit to assume this latter title in addition, and as the Russian language had no term corresponding to it, the Latin word Imperator was introduced, while the Empress was termed Imperatritsa. At first several European powers refused to sanction the assumption of imperial dignity by the Russian Czar, but ultimately consented to do so. The wife of the Czar was named Czaritsa (Czarina) ; the sons. Czarevitch ; the daughters, Czarevna ; but after the death of Alexis, Peter I.'s son, these titles were abolished, and the imperial princes were called grand dukes and the imperial princesses grand duchesses. In 1790 the Em- j)eror Paul I. introduced the title of Cesarevitch (not Czarevitch) for his second son, the Grand Duke Constantine. The heir apparent and his wife are still called Cesarevitch and Cesarevna. Among the Russian people themselves, the Em- peror is more frequently called Gosudar, i.e. lord, than Czar. See Russia. CZARNIECKI, or CZARNECKI, eharn- yet.s'ke, Stefan (1599-1665). A Polish general. He was distinguished by his bravery and brilliant generalship in the war against Charles X. of Sweden (1655-60), upon the conclusion of which he was hailed as the liberator of his country, which, simultaneously with the great onslaught of the Scandinavians, had been assailed by the Russians and Transylvanians. He also won laurels in the war against the Cossacks (1660-01), suc- cessively defeating them in two great battles. He had attained the highest rank in the Polish army when, attended by only a few horsemen, he under- took an expedition to the Crimea, in order to se- cure an alliance with the Tatars. In conse-