Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 05.djvu/920

DAKWIN. 798 DARWIN. able, by steadj' application, despite his disability, to produce liis great works. The scientific outcome of his voyage was a series of important books. In 1839 was pub- lished his first Journal of Fesearches; and in 1840-43 the Zooloijy of the Voyage of B. M. 8. Beagle, publislied by the Government and edited by Darwin; in 1842 The iStnicture and Distribu- tion of Coral I'eefs, in which was proposed the theory of the origin of coral reefs that is most generally held to-day, in 1844, Geological Ob- sr-rvations on Volcanic Islands; and in 1846, liis Geological Observations on Sorith America. Darwin's valuable Monograph of the Cirripedia (1851-55) was the immediate outcome of his voyage, and remains to-day the standard sys- tematic work on this group. It had long been known to a number of scien- tific friends that Darwin was working on a theory of evolution when, in 1858, he received from A. R. yallace, then in the East Indies, the manuscript of a paper containing precisely the same explanation of adaptation that Darwin had hit upon. Darwin was naturally much em- barrassed, but seemed willing to throw aside the work of years and give precedence to his friend's jiaper. On the advice of friends, however, his ])aper and Wallace's were read at the same meet- ing of the Linnoean Society of London, and were published in their Transactions for 1858. In 1859 Darwin's book. The Origin of Species by Means of Xatnral Selection, or the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle of Life, ap- peared. It at once created the greatest interest, and, largely through the extraordinarily able champioi^ship of Huxley, its ideas soon gained widespread acceptance. Although Darwin's the- ory of natural selection is primarily only an ex- planation of adaptation, yet adaptation is of such fundamental importance that its explana- tion paved the way for the acceptance of the general theory of evolution: for Darwin con- tributed a mechanical or natural explanation of what had before required a supernatural explana- tion. Development by natural law took the place of the special-creation hypothesis. Dar- win's mechanical theory is that of the struggle for existence, the annihilation of the imfit, and the consequent "survival of the fittest." It rests upon the evident fact that every species of ani- mal produces more young than will develop to maturity and breed ; for if all the young pro- duced by any species bred the world would soon become filled with that species to the exclusion of every other. The vast number of individuals that are killed off are, on the whole, below the aerage of those that survive. The latter have V)een preserved on accoirat of a certain, perhaps slightly, greater fitness to their environment, which may protect them from their enemies or give them greater power in gaining food or re- producing their kind. Their slight advantage will be inherited, and so the next generation will start from a fitter plane, and bj" a con- tinuance of the selective pi'ocess in successive generations, perfect adaptation will result. The theory of natural selection has been subjected to the most rigorous criticism, but it still remains a useful explanation of certain phenomena. Sec XATn?.L Selkctiox; EvoirTiox. The importance of the change wrought bv Darwin's honk cannot be overestimated. First, it revolutionized the method of work and the aims of natural history. The aims of zoological investigation were thenceforth the retracing of zoological history, determining the stages through which plants and animals have passed in their development. Before Darwin's time systematic work was the mere enumeration of species: since, it has been the stud}' of relation- slups. Before Darwin, embryology was the de scription of the earlier stages of development ; since, it has been the reading of the phylogeny in ontogeny. Before Darwin, comparative anat- omy was the comparison of types: since then it has become the study of the effect of func- tion and environment in molding the bodily form. • But the influence of Darwinism was by no means confined to natural history. Darwin him- self early extended his general theory to man, especially in The Descent of Han and Selection in Relation to Sex (1S71). Thus extended, Dar- win's theory came into opposition to the Bible, literally and narrowly interpreted, and so it aroused a vast storm of opposition from Church officials. In fullness of time not only ecclesi- astics but philosophers of every sort have come to base their teachings and doctrines on evolution. Darwin taught that the mind of man in its lowest stages was essentially an ani- mal mind, and the upward progress of man is viewed as effected by natural causes, chief among which is the action of natural selection. He does not inquire into the exact way in which the mental and bodily are connected. He simply as- sumes that, just as the bodily organism is capa- ble of varying in an indefinite number of ways, so may the mental faculties vary indefinitely in correspondence with certain physical changes. In this way he seeks to account for all the higher mental powers, as the use of language and rea- son, the sentiment of beauty, and conscience. Finally, Darwin seeks to give a practical and ethical turn to his doctrine, since he defines the general good — the proper object of man's action — as "the rearing of the greatest number of individuals in full health and vigor, and with all their faculties perfect under the conditions to which they are subject." It is well to observe that if Darwinism confined itself to a strict fol- lowing of the great investigator, it might involve less of philosophic and metaphysical theory than has become popularly associated with it, for much of which Darwin is not to he held respon- sible. For further exposition of Darwin's views, see Evolution and X.tueal Selection, and the discussion of special phases of his doctrine and investigations under other titles there indicated, Darwin's later life was devoted to the demon- stration of his theory by a series of studies, the results of which appeared chiefl.v in the follow- ing books: Fertilization of Orchids (1862); Variation of Animals and Plants Vndcr Domesti- cation (1868): Expression of the Emotions in Mail and Animals (1872) : Insectivorous Plants (1875) ; Climbing Plants (1875) ; The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom (1876); Different Forms of Flowers in Plants of the Same Species (1877): The Poicer of Movement in Plants (ISSO); and On the Formation of Mold by the Action of Earth- worms (1881). Personally Darwin was characterized by a kind disposition, gentle manners, and lirilliant conversational qualities. His warm-heartedness,