INDIA. 542 INDIA. that in these regions tlieic is a ^^roator decrease in the male popiihition than tlie female. It is generally accepted that women withstand the deprivations of the famine more successfully than men. popdlatiom of the lahnkst c1tie8 (including in Most Casks Cantonments) Calcutta and Fort. Bombay City Ma(]ru.s Hyilerabad Lucknow Kangoon Benares Delhi Lahore Cawnpore Agra Mandalay Allahabad AlnritMir Jaipur Bangalore Poona Patua Total Population in 1901 1891 S47, 77U, .il)9, 41S,
- .i4
2U9, liOS, 202, 197, ISS, 172 lti2, KiU, 159, l.iS, 134, 79li .0(1(1 MAI, •1(1(1 019 ,S81 MM 57.5 ,9(11 ,17(1 ,022 .SKI ,o:i2 ,51S ,(H(ll ,:i20 ,7851 I G,S2 821 45'J 4l.- 273, 180 219 192 17H 1S8 Kl.S ISS 17; i:i( 1.5s, ISO. IG 165 305 704 518 039 .028 324 ,407 579 .S51 712 .(1(12 S15 2I(; 7(1(1 ,7S7 ,3(10 390 192 Education. Education on the part of England in India has Iji-cn carried on in the face of many serious obstacles, and under complex conditions peculiar to the country. Social, religious, and racial distinctions, solidified in the system of caste, were so thoroughly interwoven with the whole of the life that they circumscrilwd the scope and modified the methods of English in- struction. British education has never had to deal in India with the implanting of Western culture on an Oriental people having no culture of their own. hut the superimposing of one sys- tem of culture upon another more philoso|)hically profound in its sphere, and upon a people who cherished an cducatiiinal lore that antedated by far the one olFered them in its stead. A sys- tem of education such as it was and restricted to the sanctioned castes — chiefly the Brahmin — had never been wanting in India. When the English began to introduce the new system, a bitter dispute arose as to how much recognition should be given this ancient and native learn- ing; for instance, whether the English classics should supplant the Sanskrit and Arabic, anil whether the English or the vernacular should be used as a medium of instruction. These ques- tions were finally decided in favor of European as against Oriental knowledge, and in favor of the vernacular as a medium, though English became prominent in advanced instruction, and generous provisions were made to bring it within reach of all who desired it. This system, which was finally adopted, and which in the main continues to-day, was outlined by Lord Halifax in 18.54. An investigating com- mission, reporting in 188.3. approved the system, but favored emphasizing certain features, such as the encouragement of native schools and of primary and female education, to the end that the masses might share more liberally in the benefits of learning. Religious instruction has never been permitted in the State schools — a policy different from that pursued by the Eng- lish Oovernment in the schools of England, and which has generally been opposod by the clerical and missionary interests. At the same time the State advances financial aid to missionary schools without discrimination as to seel, nn<l endeavors to avoid competition with them by not establishing schools where the missionary schools already ])rovide adc(]uate facilities. Both missionary and State schools are under the su- perision of Slate inspectors, and must conform to certain regulations. Ci rants in aid consi.st of salary grants, results' grants, building grants, etc. The State educational system is complete in scope, including prinuiry, secondary, and col- legiate instruction, and is systematically or- ganized and administered. Normal schools are maintained in every province. There are five universities — Calcutta, .Madras, Bombay, the Pun- jab, and Allahabad. They consist of examin- ing bodies only, hut have a large number of af- filiated colleges. The number of ])crsons receiv- ing instructi(m has greatly increased during the past half century. The field of (>ducation is, however, limited. The attendance is largely from the middle classes, especially in the State schools, and while the missionaries reach a larger pro- portion from the lower castes, the entire number is small in eomjiarison with the number of per- sons to whom opportunities for education never come. Two criticisms in particular have been urged against the present system. The first is, the relative overemphasis of higher education. This emphasis has been in accordance with the 'filter- ing down theory,' under which it was thought that the masses could be reached best through the agency of a highly educated native class. This theory in practice, however, leaves the masses untouched. The other criticism is that too much attention is given to classical and not enough to industrial instruction, and that, accordingly, the pupils are not fitted to take an active part in the industrial transformation which the country needs. The figures taken from the last quinguennial review, reporting in 1807, show that there were 1,236,000 pupils in the State schools, 2.019,000 in aided schools, .')32.000 in unaided schools, and 508,000 in private schools. Of these only 402.000 were females, or 2.3 per cent, of all the females of school age in India, the male attendance being 22.3 ]ier cent, of all males of scliool age. The percent- age of boys in attendance varied from 38.8 per cent, in the Province of Burma to !l.3 x-r cent, in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. The grand total of all pupils in public and private institutions increased during the decade 1890 to moo from 3,092.000 to 4.102.000. Native Chris- tian pupils represented o.lO per cent., Hindu 72.8G per cent., and Mohammedan 14.62 per cent, of the total attendance. In public institutions there were 97 per cent, of the pupils studying the vernacular language; the percentage of those studying the classical languages and the English language was small. Over a third of the proceeds used for education was derived from fees, the remainder being divided I)etween provincial, local, and municipal funds and other sources. The total expenditure on public instruction in- creased graduallv from 3. 31. .'58.447 rupees in 1894-95 to 3,77,29,012 in 1899-1900. BELIGIOX. From the earliest times India has been a land of numerous religions, and the creeds professed there to-day are almost as great in number as they are varied in spirit and character. The
