Journal and in the Comptes rendus. The best known of his published works is his Lehrbuch der Analysis (2 vols., Bonn, 1877, 1880). He also pulilished Wissenschaft und Htaat ( ib., 1874); Bedeutung der theoretischen Mevhanik (Berlin, 1876) ; and Vntersuchungen ilher die fiummen von Quadraten (Bonn, 1886).
LIPSIUS, le'pse-us, Ida Maria (18.37—). A
Gernum writer on music, better known by her
pseudouym, "La ilara.' A sister of the classical
philologist Justus Hermann Lipsius, she was
bom in Leipzig, and wrote several sketches of
travel, Im Hochgebirge (1876), Hommergliick
(1881), and Im Lande der Hehnsucht (1901).
Her musical publications include the essays Mu-
sikalische Studienkopfe (1808-82; 9th ed. 1891)
and Klassisches und Romantisches aus der Ton-
welt (1892) ; the collection of Gedanken beriihm-
ter Musiker Uber Hire Eunst (187.3), and of
Musikerbriefe aus fiinf Jahrhunderten (1886);
editions of Liszt's letters (1893-1902), of his cor-
respondence with von Billow (1898), and of
Berlioz's letters to Princess Sayn-Wittgenstein
(1903) ; and a translation into German of Liszt's
Chopin (2d ed. 1890).
LIP'SIUS, JrsTUs. The Latinized form of
Joest Lips (1547-1600), a celebrated philologian
and humanist, born at Overyssche in Brabant.
After studying at the Jesuit College in Cologne
he went to the University of Louvain, where he
pursued the study of law and the liberal arts. In
1567 he published a volume of essays, ^'ariarum
Lectionam Libri Tres, which secured him the
favor of Cardinal Granvella, who took him
to Rome and made him his secretary. From
1569 to 1572 he led the life of a wandering
scholar in the Low Coimtries, Germany, and Aus-
tria, turning Lutheran in the latter year to take
the chair of history at .Jena, where he remained
for two years. After living for some time at
Cologne, Louvain, and Antwerp he became in
1579 professor of history at Leyden. embracing at
the same time the Calvinistic faith. In 1590 he
left Leyden, became reconciled with the Church,
and received, in 1592. the chair of Latin at
Louvain. There he remained till his death,
which occurred April 24, 1606. Probably the
greatest authority of his age on Roman antiqui-
ties. Lipsius contributed greatly to the develop-
ment of the study of the language and history
of ancient Rome by a large number of editions of
the Latin historians and philosophers, preeminent
among which is the monumental edition of Tacitus, which has remained a standard to the present day (1st ed., Antwerp, 1574; 6th ed., corrected by the author, 1605). He also published
editions of Velleius Paterculus. Valerius Maxi-
mus, and Seneca, besides numerous original con-
tributions dealing with the material and intel-
lectual life of the ancient Romans. Among these
are: De Amphitheatro (1584) : De Cruce (1,593) ;
De Militia Komana (1595) : De Vesta el Vesla-
iilus fiijntagma (1603K His philosophical views,
which were those of the Stoics, were embodied in
the De Con/ttnntia (1584) and the Maniiductio
ad Stoicam Philosophiam (1604). His corre-
spondence was extensive and important, and has
been repeatedly published in part. His Opera
Omnia appeared at Antwerp in 1637. Consult:
Galesloot. P/irticiilarites sur la vie de Justus
Lipsius (Bruges, 1877) : Amiel, Un publiciste du
Ifidme siicle : Juste Lipse (Paris, 1884),
LIPSIUS, le'p-..-i,i>, Jlsti-s Hi;kma..v (1834 — ). A German classical philologist, born at
Leipzig, professor in the university of his native
city. He is editor of Andocides (Leipzig, 1888) ;
Demosthenes, On the Crown (ib., 1884) ; reviser
of Meier and Schiimann's Der attische I'rozess (2
vols., Berlin, 1883, 1887); and of Schumann's
(Jriechische Alter turner (2 vols., ib., 1897, 1901).
He is also the author of numerous philological
pajK-rs.
LIPSIUS, Richard AnELBEBT (1830-92). A
German theologian, brother of the preceding,
born at Gera. He studied at the University of
Leipzig, where he was appointed professor of
theology. He held a similar position afterwards
at the universities of Vienna, Kiel, and Jena.
In 1874 he was nominated a member of the
Weimar Synod. Lipsius belongs to the moderate
representatives of liberal theology; in the domain
of historical research he unhesitatingly recog-
nizes the propriety of scientific criticism, and on
matters of dogma he sides with Kant, who re-
quires harmony between revelation and the actual
existence of the world. He acquired fame as
thinker and scholar by his chief work, Lehrbuch
der evangelisch-protestantischen Dogmatik (1870-
93). Of his numerous other contributions to
theological literature, the following deserve men-
tion: Der Gnosticismus, in Krsch and Grub<T"s
Lnryclopudie (1860); I'hilosophie und Religion
(1885) ; and TJnser gemcinsamer Glaubensgrund
im Kampfe gegen Rom (1890). Die Qucllcn der
iiltesten Ketzergeschichte (1879) is also of great
interest.
LIQUATION. See Silver.
LIQUEFACTION OF GASES (Lat. liquef actio, from liijurfiicrri . In make liquid, from liqiiidus. liquid, from liquerc. to Ix- lluld -- facere, to make). Matter exists in difTerent forms as solids, liquids, and gases, which may be roughly discriminated: A solid is matter in such a form that it keeps both its size and shape under all
ordinary conditions; a liquid has as a rule a definite volume, but will assume the shape of any vessel in which it is placed: while, if allowed to fall freely so as to form drops, these are spherical ; a gas. on the other hand, will take both the shape and volume of the solid vessel which contains it. Water in these three forms is ice, ordinary water, and steam. Every one is familiar with the fact that it is easy to make any one of these forms of water pass into any other. Thus, in nature, we have the formation of ice, hail, and snow, all of which in turn melt and
form water or else vaporize and form .steam. Similarly, we have the water evaporating from the surfaces of lakes and occ:ins, and the reverse process, the formation of rain and dew. These changes of matter from one form into another are called 'changes of state.' and the subject "Liquefaction of Gases" deals with the conditions under which matter in the gaseous condition can be made to assume the liquid one. The real test of matter being in the liquid state is its capability of forming drops, or of having a sharp .surface of sep«ration from the gases above it. The fir.st philosopher who c(Uisidcred this problem was probably Van Relmont. who lived in the latter part (if Ihe sixteenth .ind the earlr prtrt of the seventeenth century. He introduced into science the word gas and distinsniished between what he called 'gases' and 'vapors.' say-
