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HUSIC. 181 MUSIC. that it is impossible to classify theni. Wagner aiiJ Liszt became founders of two distinct schools, whereas Brahius stands alone, without follow- ers. W ajrner began as tlie successor of the ro- mantic opera of Weber. His refurinatory work is concerned not with the opera in particular, but with dramatic composition in general. He emphasizes the drama and asserts that music must only follow and intensify the text. He practically banishes the chorus, ensembles, etc., and substitutes the monologue. The voices de- claim in a highly dramatic kind of recitative, while the development of the musical ideas is as- signed to the orchestra. The unifying principle of liis works is the leitmotiv(q.v.) , which consti- tutes the basis of the niiisifiil drama (q.v. ). The nmsic-drama is a combination of the dramatic, musical, and plastic arts into one new art-form. Wagner demands first of all a drama, not a text or libretto (q.v.) ; all the resources of music are to be employed toward a true interpretation of this drama; and the plastic arts are to combine with music. The orchestra is enormously en- riched by new tone-colors and means of expres- sion. ( See Melos : Opera ; Wagner. ) Liszt ap- plied Wagner's principle of descriptive music to purely instrumental music, and became an ex- ponent of "programme music' (q.v.). Unable to make the classic form of the s.ymphony serve his purpose, he invented the si/inplwn;/ poem. In the field of piano-music he becomes the originator, with Schumann and Chopin, of modern piano- forte techniiiue. Together with Wagner and Ber- lioz he also laid the foundations of a new school of conducting (the interpretativeconductor) . (See CoN'Di'CTOR : I-iszT. ) Brahms, in an age of musical ex<itement and innovations, stands forth as the keeper of classical forms. He successfully car- ries nn the style of Beethoven's third period, faithfully preserving the form, but showing the possibility of filling it with new and original con- tents. Thus he proves that absolute music is un- limited in its .scope and power of expression ; that its capabilities were not exhausted even by the titanic Beethoven; that any original genius can employ those forms for conveying his ideas; that the polyphonic art of Bach can successfully be combined with the homojdionic-harmonic art of Beethoven and with Romanticism. See Braiims. XXVI. Thr Berlin Academicians (1830-1000). — While Brahms was not hostile to the develop- ment of music, a number of composers refused to recognize that Romanticism was an advance in the art of music. They closed themselves to the new influences and sought their ideals in the past. The .strongholds of this school were .several Ber- lin institutions, notably the Siitrjakademie. (See Choral Societies.) The energies of these mas- ters were directed to the cultivation of the poly- phonic style of the older Italian schools and Bach. But some of the later masters finally adopted the principles of Romanticism. The im- portant names are: Dehn. Orell. Kiel. Bargiel, Blumner, Becker, Bruch, Hofmann, Herzogenberg, Gernsheim. XXVII. The Xt'o-nermaii Helwol (1847—). — The beginning of Liszt's activity in Weimar in 1847 may be regarded as the commencenicnt of this .school. Liszt attracted a great number of young musicians who enthusiastically devoted themselves to the cultivation of proirramme music, carrying out Liszt's ideas. But the Xeo- Qerman masters did not devote their energies entirely to the field of instrumental music. Wag- ner's works attracted more and more admirer.i, and composers began to imitate him. Up to the present day a great many dramatic works con- structed upon Wagner's principles have been written. The failure of all would seem to indi- cate that one might almost be justified in stating that Wagner's art-form is one suited to his own gigantic genius, but hopeless for lesser masters. This would seem to be confirmed by the fact that the new dramatic works that have achieved success are all by non-German composers who adopted many of Wagner's ideas, but not hia form in. tolo. The Neo-Gcrman School has been marked by earnest effort, but its composers have made no lasting impi'ession. The only one whose work seems destined to outlive contemjrorary criticism is Richard Strauss, a man of pro- nounced originality and as a master of orchestra- tion equal to Wagner himself. The dramatic composers of this school are: Cornelius, Ritter, Bungert, Kistler, Humperdinck, Kienzl, D'Albert, Weinglirtner, Schillings, S. Wagner. The instru- mental composers are represented bj': Krug, Nicode, Jlahler. Hausegger. XXVIII. The Modern Italian School (1851—). — Beginning about 17o0. the history of Italian music is practically the history of the decline of the opera. When Verdi scored his first success in 1839 no one dreamt that this man, beginning in the degenerate style, would raise the Italian opera to a high level. In Iliijoletio (1851) there is a very perceijtible eft'ort for dramatic truth and characterization, which the school of Bel Canto entirely ignored. The successive wiu'ks ad- vance along this line until in .1 iV/o ( 1 872 ) we ha ve a rare combination of exquisite melody, dra- matic characterization, and truth of expression. Olello (1887) and FaUlnff (1803) mark the culmination of Italian opera. Wagner's principle of dramatic truth is .strictly observed. Neverthe- less these works are not imitations of Wagner. Verdi has retained all the forms of the opera, but has knit them together into an artistic whole. The principle of the leitmotiv is not used. The orchestration shows a mastery never ex- hibited by any previous Italian compo.ser. The influence of Verdi is noticeable in a number of composers known as the Veriotic School (Mas- cagni, Leoncavallo), who for some years at- tracted much attention. Among the many operatic composers, none of whom can approach Verdi, the following deserve mention: Boito, Ponchielli, Marchetti, Faccio, Coronaro. Puccini, Smareglia. The elevating influence Verdi ex- erted upon dramatic music turned .some serious composers to the field of instrumental and choral music, which had been sadly neglected in Italy. The principal instrumental and choral compos- ers arc: Pinelli, Sgambati. Cesi, Grazzini, Man- cinelli, Martucci, Franchetti, Perosi. XXIX. The Modern French School (1830—). — So far we have spoken of musical development in France only in connection with the theatre. Instrumental music had not been cultivated to a very great extent. But we cannot disregard the name of the family of Couperin during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Several mendicrs have become famous through their contribution to the perfection of the suite- form. Under .section XXII. the hi.story of dra- matic music up to the death of Jleyerbeer has been gien. Berlioz first awakened a deeper in-