Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 14.djvu/328

NATUBAI, THEOLOGY. 284 NATUSE-STUDY. natural tli<:ol(i;.' ;iik1 its ellorl. as it was pursued for a laryu part of the last century. But it never maintained the actual independence of revelation which it was supposed to maintain. The proofs for the existence of Gotl (q.v. ) really presuppose the idea of a holy first cause, and this idea is historically derived from the Chris- tian revelation. Without this suggestion the jiroofs are inconclusive. But with this allowance to revelation, natural theology has a place and a work in the development and defense of Chris- tian doctrine. It exhibits the conformity of the iilea of God to the highest reason of man. The proper founder of the discipline among English- speaking theologians was .rehdeacon Paley, who published his S'alural Theoloyy in 1802. The merits of tliis work have been lately overlooked, and it has l>een the fashion with many who never read him to sneer at Paley "s arguments. In fact, the lK)ok was a very able one. and anticipated the lines of reply by which the tirst attacks of the more recent jjropounders of evolution ui)on the existence of God have been met. In .merica the rationalizing spirit of the New England Theology (<|.v. ) led it to lay much weight upon natural theology, and it was generally ostensibly made the basis of the system of theology by theologians of this school, and by most others, during a large ]iart of the century. The ar- rangement of topics in the l)est forms of the ecience were somewhat as follows: Begin- ning was made with the prin(i|)le of causation, which was established as a necessary truth, or primal intuition of the human mind. Then came the arguments for the existence of God, predomi- nantly or exclusively the n ponterinri arguments. for a contriver, governor, creator. ])reserver. and moral governor. Then followed the natural at- tributes of God. In making the transition to the moral ittributes. it was sometimes the custom to interpose the doctrine of the innuortality of the soul, and discussions as to the consistency of the existence of sin in the world with the divine gOixlness, in order antecedently to remove the most difficult objections to the divine benevo- lence. Where the moral attribtites of God were reduced to the one attribute of benevolence, it was next customary to introduce the theory of human virtue, and to argue from benevolence as the ultimate object of the oliligation of the human conscience to the nature of the divine virtue, since man is made in the image of God. Finally, the benev<dence of God having been proved, the argument could advance to the Scrip- tures, the inspiration of which was proved by the need of num for revelation, and the certainty that a benevolent God would supply so grievous a need. This line of discussi<in was largely broken up at the end of the century by infbienccs emanating from the more subjective schools of German theology, especially from lrank and Ritschl. Besides Palev. consult: Chadbourne, }i(itur<il Thrnlofiji (Boston. IHtlT); I'Tint, Thrism (Edinburgh, 1878) ; id., AntiTheistic Theories (ib., 187!!); .Innct, Final Catixrs ( Eng. trans., ib., 1878) ; Browne, Stmliv/i in Thcuim (New- York, 1879): id., Plnlnsophu of Theism (ib., 1887): Harris. The f'hilosophiral Unsis of The- ism (ib., ISS;)) : Fisher, flrotiiiils of Theistie and Chrislirni It.lirf (ib.. 18S3). NATURAL TONES. . nnisical tenn ap- plieil to those tones of wind instruments that are produced, williout altering t)ic length of the tube (by valves or slides), by increased or di- minished force of the air-current. The tones thus l)rodueed are always overtones of the funda- mental tone. But this fundamental tone can be produced only iipon instruments having a wide bore in |>roportion to their length, like the tuba or trombone ; whereas the fundamental cannot be proihiced upon the trumpet, which, conse- quently, yields onlv the higher overtones as nat- ural tones. !Sec H.vh.mo.nics. NATURE PRINTING. A process by which engr:ivings or |ilati-s are produced bv taking direct impressions of the objects themselves, and printing from them. The process was invented in 184!) bv .lois Auer. director of the State printing estalilishment of the .ustrian Empire, and, though very simple, it cannot be a])plicd to any objects except those with tolerably Hat surfaces, such as dried and pressed plants, em- broidery and lace, and a very few animal pro- ductions. The (il>ject is place<l between a plate of steel and another of lead, l)oth of which are smooth, and polished. They are then drawn through a pair of rollers under considerable pressure, and when the plates an; separated it is found that a most beautiful and perfect im- pression of the object has been made in the leaden plate. This may be used <lirectl.v as an engraved plate, if only a very few impressions are wanted : but it is too soft to resist the action of the presses for practical ])urposes: a facsimile to be used as the printing plate is made in copi)er b.v the electrotype ])rocess. The inventor published a description of his work in 1854 at Vienna, in which is given a detailed account of (be method. NATURE-STUDY. A modern development of the movenu nt of elementary education toward the study of real objects rather than synibols. It arose in resjionsc to a demand voiced as early as the year 1845 in this country by Horace Mann (q.v.) for early training in the inductive method of thought and in the field of nature. -Vccording to generally accepted ideas on naturestud.v. it uuist concern itself with the common objects of the child's environment. These the child nuisl be led to examine, to work with himself. The work must be carried on. so far as possible, to strengthen independence of thought and judgment. The begiimings of the study must be based u)ion the innnediatc surroundings of the child, and the field of in(|uiry may l)e extended further abroad as the later years of the scluiol are approached. The tasks in the earlier years should be chielly observational. Xevertheless, the experimental method of study should not be neglected. .s far as possible, luganie forms should be regarded as living things capable of activity and change; the point of view should therefore be dynamic, a matter of great pedagogic importance. The i)lan of the work may properly be made out so as to include the connnoner animals and plants, and the every- day phenomena of inorganic nature. Duplication of work should be- avoided by increasing the dillicnlty of the problems and basing them on diirereiit material. It is better to study the materials comparatively as far as possible, .so that pupils may learn to discriminate and to form general notions. The exhaustive study of one type is of nuich less value. Outdoor work