Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 14.djvu/660

NIGIDIUS FIGTJLTJS. 562 NIHILISM. the natural sciences, .are printed in the Tariw Leclioncs (1018, iii. IG) of Kutgersius. Con- sult: Brcysig, De Xiyidii Figuli Fniynnnlis (Berlin, 1854) ; Klein, JJe ]'ila igidii (Bonn, 1801); Riilirig, De JS'igidio Fiyulo (Coburg, 1887) ; and Swoboda, P. Xiyidii I'igiili Operum Jiili(li(i(r (Vienna, 1889). NIGRA, ne'gri'i, CosTAXTiNO, Count ( 1827—). An Italian dii)l<)niatist, born at Castellanionte, near Ivrea. He interrupted his studies at Turin to take part in the war against Austria ( 1848- 4!)). and then entered the diplomatic service and became secretary to Cavour. After the Peace of Villafranca (ISoK) he was sent to France as Minister I'lenipotentiary. He took an active part in the negotiation of the Treaty of Zurich in 1859, anil the cession of Savoy and Nice to France, and was made .Vmliassador to Paris (1801). After the fall of the Knipire he l)ecanie Ambassador at Saint Petersburg (1870-82). Londcm (1882-85), and Vienna (1885), and in ISiiO was elected Senator. NIGRITIA, ne-grlsh'e-ii. Anotlicr name for the Sii.lMn. NIHILISM (from Lat. nihil, nil, nothing, from ne, not + hilum, trifle, little thing). A term applied to the tenets of the revolutionary wing of the Russian Liberal Party. The term was first used in a novel by Ivan Turgenieff, J-'athrrx nnd Sans. Originally it was a school of philosophic and ethical individualism which held aloof from political agitation. In the com- mon mind Nihilism is associated with assassina- tion and revolution, since Russian Nihilists seek to overthrow the jjresent (iovernment by force. The movement which resulted in the formation of the Nihilistic Party began early in the nine- teenth century. As early as 1818 those who aspired for greater freedom in Russia formed an association (o further the common welfare. On December 20 (old style. 14), 1825. occurred the celebrated rising of the Decembrists among the ollicers and soldiers of the army, which aimed at the emancipation of the serfs and the introduction of constitutional governnu'nt. The revolt was easily quelled, and six leaders were executed; 125 others were imprisoned or exiled. Toward the middle of the century liberal ideas received an impetus from the study of socialistic writers of other countries. On April 2:1. 1840. some thirty- three men were arrested wlio belonged to an association formed by Petra>hevsky. an official of the Foreign Olliee. These were sentenced to death, hut the sentences were eommuted to im- prisonment and banishment. There were no further disturbances during the reign of Nicho- las I. In 1857 Alexamlcr HitI/ch fiiimdcd in London his journal, the Kolukol ( Tocsin l. which had enormous inlluence upon the Russian yoith. About this time there arose in Russia itself a literary movement, iindcr the leailersjiip of Teliernislievsky, which criticised existing society and sought to arouse the people. Tehernishev- sky'.s paper was suppressed in 1802. Init later he wrote a novel, ^'hnl is In hi Donrt which had preat inlluence in popularizing revolutionary ideas. ShapolT. writing from the historical point of view, urged the introduction of self-govern- ment and local autonomy. Organizations sprang >ip in the universities, and new regulations intro- duced by the Government increased the opposi- tion of the students. The secret associations of Saint Petersburg united in 1803 under the name 'Land and Freedom.' During the decade from 1800 to 1870 true Nihilism was first developed. Its fuiulaniental principle was absolute individualism, the nega- tion of duties imposed by family. State, and religion. An active materialistic i)roi>aganda was maintained. It stood for the rights of women and children, demanding cciuality of treatment for women, and in this res|)cct it won a decided victory. But this individualism was confronted with misery among the common people which was not removed by the emancipation of the serfs. Economic conditions forced a change of policy and the development of political agitation. In 1808 Bakunin (q.v.) started a paper at Geneva, and became the leader of the anarchists, who gained control of the movement. Bakunin advocated the total aliolition of the State and the sulistitution of small cipunnunes. The mir. or village conuiuine (q.v.), had only to be freed from the State to make an ideal basis. The Russian students, forbidden in 187.3 to study at Zurich, returned home to take active part in the propaganda. Associations sprang uj) throughout the land. Many of the aristocrats took ])art in this movement. The attention of the Govern- ment was of course attracted, and in 1873 and 1874 some 1500 persons were arrested. Most of these were released after a few months' im- lirisoiniient ; the rest were confined for three or four years, and in 1877 1!13 were banished to Siberia. During this same jieriod, au<l indeed at all times, there existed a more moderate part}'; but it did not satisfy the demands of the young men and women, particularly of the universities, which have been a hotl>ed of political agitation. About 1875 the 'Narodniki' became a prominent and widespread organization. It was under the leadership of the society at Saint Petcrsliurg. The (iovernment now became active, and during 1870 and 1877 the prisons were filled with propa- gandists. The trials of 1877 and 1878 mark the end of the first period of revolution. The num- ber of persons involved in these trials was about 3800. The attempts to organize the people into revolt now ended. The cruelty of the Government led to reprisals, and the Nihilism which began peace- fully in the seventies took on another nature. -At first sj)ies of the (iovernment were nnirdercd. February 5, 1878. Vera Zassuliteh, a young woman of twenty-eight, shot at General TrcpotT, who had caused a prisoner to be whipped for refusing to take o(T his hat to him. She was tried before a jury of educated men, eight of whom held Government positions, and. to the gen- eral sinprisc. she was acquitted. The Govern- ment was enraged at this, and the verdict was annulled. August 4. 1878. General Mezentseff was killed in the streets of Saint Petersburg. f)n February 21. 1870, the Governor of Kharkov. Prince Krapotkin. was assassinated, and other attempts were made to assassinate hated olTicials. .April 14. 1870. an attem])t to assassinate the Kmperor. Alexander II.. was made by SoloviefT, who was captured and hanged. Two later at- tempts were likewise failures. Imt (he next (March 13. 1881) was successful. (See Al.EX- ANnr.it II.) It was hoped that the terror inspired by the death of the Fniperor would lead to the introiluction of a conslitnl ionnl systeni. When