Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 18.djvu/754

SUBWAYS. 654 SUCCESSION AB INTESTATO. of the underground systems have the conductors built in the tubes before the latter are laid, in vhich case new wires cannot be added without laying additional tubes, but provision is made for service connections without digging up the street. The most common materials used for the conduits or ducts are wrought iron, earthen- ware, and wood, but sometimes cast iron, and again ordinary or more rarely bituminous ce- ment concrete is used. In place of tubes troughs of cast iron, earthenware, or wood, covered with the same material, are sometimes employed. The diameters of the various ducts are about three inches, and if one is not sufficient for the various ■wires to be buried any desired number may be placed in the same trench. ^'rought iron pipes similar to gas pipes are commonly imbedded in concrete, and they may be laid in trenches lined with cement or wood. Earthenware or terra-cotta ducts are generally surrounded with concrete, but the latter sometimes gives place to boards at the top. Each piece of conduit is eighteen inches long. If a group of ducts is desired they are laid up one on another, breaking joints, much like brick- work; or multiple ducts may be bought from t!ie manufacturers. Concrete duets are formed in place. Wooden ducts are in the form of " square timber, with holes bored through the centre, or constructed more cheaply from boards. Wood-fibre pipes are also used. (See Pipe.) In the Edison thi-ee-conductor tube system three copper rods are so wound, separately and col- lectively, with rope, as to insulate them from wrought iron pipe, some twenty feet long, in which they are placed. These sections are filled with a iluid insulating compound before being shipped from the factory. Special insulated joints are made in the trenches, both for ordinary joints and for branch lines. Edison tubes of a simpler type but embodying the same principles are also made. The various classes of electrical wires and cables are generally insulated before being placed in subways. (See Electric Lioiit- iKG : Electric Railways ; Telegraph ; Tele- PHOKE. etc.) The wires and cables are drawn into the closed electrical subways through man- holes at intervals of 200 to 300 feet by means of ropes or rods. If ropes are used a steel wire with a round metal head is first pushed through, and by means of this a rope sufficiently large to haul the electric cable is drawn in. The rods are pushed through from manhole to manhole, one short rod after another being jointed onto the line. Ordinarily electrical subways need be placed but three feet or so underground. Consult: Mason, "Street Subways for Large Towns," and discussion thereon, in Transnctions of the ^ocicfii of Enfiineer.s (London. 1895) : article in Engineering Xews on "Street Subways for Pipes and Wires" (New York. Jlarch 15, IPOO), describes all subways for both pipes and wires known to be in use up to early in 1900; also chapter on underground electrical construc- tion in vol. ii. of Crocker, Electric Lighting (New York, 1001), and similar chapters in Hopkins, Telephone Lines and Their Properties (ib., new ed., 1901). SUCCESSION (Lat. successio. from siiccedere, to follow, succeed, from suh. under + cedere. to yield). At civil law (q.v.) succession signifies in general the substitution of one person for another in an existing legal relation. Acquisi- tion of a right previously held by another is termed active succession; subjection to a duty previously resting upon another, passive succes- sion. When single rights or duties are thus transferred the succession is said to be singular. When a person receives all the rights and duties of another that are capable of transfer the suc- cession is said to be tiniversal. The most im- portant case of universal succession is inheri- tance, which at civil law- signifies the transfer to one or more heirs of the rights and obliga- tions of a person deceased. Heirs may be desig- nated by a last will or testament (q.v.) ; in the absence of a valid testament they are designated by general laws. In the latter case civilians speak of inheritance or succession ab intestato (q.v.). Inheritance may also be determined, in part, by laws which give certain persons rights of succession of which they cannot be deprived by a testator except on legally defined grounds. For such limitations upon the power of testation at civil law, see Testament. SUCCESSION AB INTESTATO (Lat.. from one intestate). I. PiOMA>; Law. In early Ro- man law, as in early law in general, succession was governed by the organization of the family. According to the Twelve Tables the inheritance vested (1) in the sui, i.e. the members of the decedent's family, wlio were under his household authority. (See Patri.a Potestas.) The sons and the unmarried daughters and the widow wdio had been in manu (see Marriage) had equal shares. Children of a pre-deceased son received their father's share. Failing srii, the inheritance passed (2) to the nearest agnate (i.e. the nearest collateral relative in the male line). If there was no agnate the inheritance went (3) to the gens or clan. L'nder this system kinship gave no right except in so far as it coincided with the family organization. Emancipated sons and daughters, married daughters and their descend- ants, and all cognates (relatives in the female line) were excluded from succession. On the other hand, adopted children and the wife in manii had the same rights as the other sui. In the subsequent development of the law there was a steady movement toward fuller recognition of kinship. This movement began with the prse- torian reforms at the close of the Republican period. Emancipated sons and daughters and married daughters were admitted to inherit with the sui, on condition of 'collating' ( i.e. putting into hotch-pot) their separate property. Fail- ing agnatic relatives, cognates were admitted ; and failing cognates, the husband and wife who had established a free or 'co_nsistent' marriage succeeded one to the other's estate. Later Im- perial legislation placed cognates and agnates on the same footing, as far as the direct line was concerned (ascendants and descendants). Jus- tinian in his llSth Novel abolished all preference of agnates. Under Justinian's rules the inheri- tance went (1) to descendants; (2) to ascend- ants, brothers and sisters of the full blood and their children; (3) to brothers and sisters of the half blood and their children; (4) to the nearest collateral relative; (5) to the surviving spouse; and (6) to the fiscus. Illegitimate chil- dren had no rights of succession except from the mother. II. Mem.eval Eukopean Law. The early