Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 18.djvu/873

SWITZERLAND. 75".) Switzerland's GOO glaciers, ilore than 20 of these summits rise over 12,000 feet above sea level. Second, the Titlis Alps, to the east of the Bernese Oberland. Third, the Alps of Uhirus and Schwyz, also known by the name of their highest summit in the centre, Tmli (11,887 feet). The Kigi (.5!)0ti feet), conuiianding one of the magnificent views of the Al])s, stands in the northwest corner of this group on the shores of Lake Lucerne. Fourth, the lower Alps, between lakes Constance and Zurich, which nowhere reach the snow line. On the whole the southern slopes of the Swiss Alps are steep, but the northern slopes are more gradual. Glaciers and perpetual snow are spread over 800 square miles, or about one-twentieth of the area of Switzerland. See Alps. HvDBOGR.iPHY. Owing to the Alps, the coun- try is especially well sui)plied with water. Near- ly cverA' valley is traversed by a larger or smaller stream, often interrupted by picturesque water- falls. The country possesses the headwaters of some of the important rivers of Europe — the Rhine, the Khcme, and the Po. The Rliine and its tributaries flowing to the North Sea form the principal system of rivers, but all the rivers in Switzerland are so rapid that they are almost useless for navigation, though their impetuous character fits them for industrial purposes. The only navigable stream of importance is the Aar tributary of the Rhine, which carries a larger vol- ume of water to that river than the Rhine itself supplies above their point of jimction. The Rhone, flowing to the southwest and to the Mediterra- nean, reaches Lake Geneva as a muddy stream and leaves it to enter France as a clear blue river. The Ticino is the largest river sent down by Switzerland to the Po. It has a larger catch- ment basin than any other Swiss river and is the least fed by glaciers. The Inn flows east through the deep, narrow valley called the Engadine, and falls into the Danube at Passau, where it is much larger than the Danube itself. The glaciers are a source of perennial water supply, and since they melt most rapidly in summer, the Swiss riv- ers are larger in summer than in winter. The Alps are the Lake Country of Southwest- ern Europe. The lakes are remarkable for size, depth, and the grandeur and beauty of the scenery which surrounds them. Among the fif- teen important lakes in Switzerland, eleven are in the basin of the Aar and none in the basin of the Inn. Lakes Geneva and Constance, the largest lakes, balance each other at the oppo- site ends of the country. Lake Geneva, partly in France, is ovej 200 square miles in area and has a maximum depth of 1000 feet, its bottom extending almost to the level of the Mediterra- nean. Lake Constance is a little smaller than Geneva, not quite so deep, lies partly in German territory, and is the filter of the Rhine. Lake Neuchatel, the largest lake entirely in Swi.ss ter- ritory, lies nn the tableland, and benee is not so deep as the lakes in tlic longitudinal mountain valleys. Lucerne. Zurich, Brienz, Thun. and Bienne are also important lakes. Lake I.ugano lies pai'tly in Italy, and only nine miles of Lake llaggiore belongs to Switzerland. The Ticino flows through the latter on its way to the Po. Clim.te. The distribution of climate is verti- cal rather than horizontal. On the central plain and in the lower mountain valleys a temperate SWITZERLAND. climate prevails, the mean annual temperature be- ing about oO° F. The mean temperature dimin- ishes on an average by :i° for every thousand feet of elevation, so that the climate in the liiglicr val- leys is very severe. Ticino, Vaud, and Geneva enjoy an almost Italian climate, with a mean temperature of 51° to 53.5" F., in which .southern fruits ripen. The snow line on the southern side of the Alps is about 10,170 feet above sea level; on the north side the limit of perpetual snow 13 about SuiJO feet. The growth of grain ceases at about 4000 feet. On the higher Alps, which are wrapped in clouds much of the lime, the annual preiipitation is from 78 to 97 inches; on the central plain it is 3:5 inches. The Fiihn, a warm south wind, causes .some deslrviction by rapidly melting the snow and so producing ava- lanches and inundations. The climate of Switz- erland, on the whole, is not favorable to agricul- ture, but is stimulating and healthful. Flor. and F.iN.. The vertical zones of vege- tation in the Alps correspond to the horizontal zoins of Europe between latitude 4(i° and the Arctic Circle. Olives in a few of the low val- leys are succeeded by vines and the plants of middle Europe; then come in .succession decidu- ous trees and grains, conifers, the high pastures, and shrubs and mosses, above which rises the region of perpetual snow. Oaks and chestnut trees are abundant only in the more soiith- ern valleys, beech trees are numerous up to 4000 feet above the sea, and pines, lai-ches, and fir trees thrive between 4000 and C500 feet. -Vgri- culture is mainly confined to the regions not above 2500 feet, but the high pastures extend far above the region of tillage. The wolf, ibe.x, and chamois are foimd in the mountains, but all wild animals are becoming very scarce. GICOLOCY AND MixER.L RE.SOURCES. The back- bone of .Switzerland consists of gneiss and gran- ite with outlying strata of the Carboniferous, Triassic, Jur.a.ssic, Cretaceous, an<l Tertiary formations. These strata arc all thrown into a succession of gigantic folds, giving rise to great geologic complexity. Four distinct geologic zones, extending across Switzerland from south- west to northeast, are recognized. The lime- stone .Tura region of roughly parallel folds is the fir.st zone. The second is the plain whose rocks are chiefly sandstone covered, to a great ex- tent, by the deposits of the ice invasions. The other zones cover the Alps, the more northern being that of the limestone Alps whose strata are greatly distorted and jiiled up over one another. The fourth zone consists of the great crystalline masses of the southern Swiss Alps formed of gneiss, granite, and other crystalline rocks and schists. Denudation has reduced the height of the mountains and deejiened and lengthened the valleys, the larger rivers having pushed their sources back to the very heart of the moiuitain groups. The mining industry is of little im- portance. Building stone, particularly san<I and limestone and rock salt, found in three cantons, are the chief mineral products. A little iron ore is mined in the .Tura ranges, but the irim in- dustries depend upon imports of material. A small amount of anthracite is mined near Bern of Fribourg. but Germany sends nearly a million tons of coal to Switzerland every year, and France. Austria, and England also contribute important quantities. Asphalt in the Val des