Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 18.djvu/883

SYKES. 769 SYLLOGISM. SYKES, siks, George (1822-80). An Ameri- can soldier, born at Dover, Del. He graduated at West Point in 1842, sfrvod in tlio Semi- nole and Mexican wars, and was brevetted cap- tain for gallant conduct at Ccrro (jordo. He fought in the first battle of Bull Run, as a major in the Federal army; was commissioned briga- dier-general of volunteei's in September, 1801, took part in the Peninsular, in the second Bull Run, and in the Antietani campaigns; was com- missioned major-general of volunteers in Xoveni- ber, 1802; fought at Fredericksburg and Chancel- lorsville; and commanded the Fifth Corps at Get- tysburg. In March, 1SG5, he was brevetted brigadier-general in the Regular Army for his services in the battle of Gettysburg and major- general in the Regular Army for his services during the war. He was mustered out of the volunteer army in January-, 1800, but remained in the Regular Army first as Jieutenant-colonel and then as colonel until his death in 1880. A monument has been erected in bis honor at West Point. SYKES. Olive (LoG.iN) (1841— ). An Ameri- can actress and author, born in New York. In 1804 she appeared at Wallack's Theatre, New York, in Ereleoi. a play of her own composition; but retired from the stage in 1S08, and devoted herself principally to lecturing and writing in behalf of the woman's rights movement. Her later publications include M'onien and The- atres (1809) ; Before the Footlights and Behind the Scenes (1870): and the comedy Surf, or Life at Long Braneh. SYL'LABUS ERRO'RUM (Lat., catalogue of errors i . A document published by Pius IX. in 1804, appended to the encyclical Quanta cura, condemning eighty doctrines which it calls "the principal errors of our times." They are classed Tinder various heads: pantheism, naturalism, and absolute rationalism; moderate rationalism; in- dilTerentism and latitudinarianisra : socialism, communism, secret societies, Bible societies (con- sidered from the point of view as Prot- estant proselytizing organizations), and clerico- liberal societies; errors concerning the Church and her rights: concerning civil society: concern- ing natural and Christian ethics; concerning Christian marriage: concerning the temporal power of the Pope: and errors connected with modern liberalism. The text of the document and an English translation are given in SchafT, Creeds of Christendom (Xew York, 1877-78). The Syllabus gave rise in England to a famous con- troversy between Gladstone and Newman. Con- sult Gladstone, Vaticanism (London. 1875) ; Newman, Letters to the Duke of Norfolk (ib., 1875). SYLLOGISM (Lat. stjllogismiis, from Gk. avA/oyioiiug, reasoning, conclusion, from t!v7.7,o- yO^FdUac, S!/llogi::csthai, to infer, conclude, from ai'v, si/n, together + loyi^saftni, logizesthai, to reason, from UyoQ, logos, word, reason). The name of a logical operation when expressed in a certain form in accordance with the principles of formal logic. When we reason, or get at truth by means of inference, we are said to pro- ceed either inductively (see Induction) or de- ductively. Deductive reasoning, when fully and methodically expressed, takes the form called the syllogism. 'This thing will sink in water, for it is a stone,' is a deductive argument, but not fully stated; this is called an enlhymenie (q.v. ). The complete form is, "Stones sink in water; this is a stone; therefore, this sinks in water' — • which form is called a syllogism. To a perfect syllogism it is necessary (1) that there should be three, and no more than three, jiropositious (see Pkoposition) ; these are the conclusion, or the matter to be proved, and two others that are the means of proving it, called the I)remises. It is also necessary (2) that there sliould be three, and no more than three, terms, namely, the subject and the predicate of the con- clusion, and one, called the middle term, which must occur in both premises, being the connect- ing link for bringing the two other terms to- gether in the conclusion. The predicate of the conclusion is called the major term, because it is in its extension (q.v.) the largest of the three; the subject of the conclusion is the minor term, as being the smallest in extension. The major and minor terms are called extremes. The three terms appear in the premises in this manner: the major term and the middle term appear in one premise, called the major premise; the middle term and the minor term in the minor premise. In the syllogism above stated, the terms are "(a thing that will) sink in water' (major), 'this thing' (minor), 'stone' (middle) ; the premises are, 'stones sink in water' (major), 'this thing is a stone' (minor) ; the conclusion is, 'this thing sinks in water'; (,3) one premise at least must be affirmative; (4) if one premise be negative, the conclusion must be negative; (5) the middle term must be distributed ( = taken in the whole of its extension) in at least one pre- mise; (0) an extreme, if undistributed in a pre- mise, may not be distrilmted in the conclusion. Any syllogism which violates any one or more of these six syllogistic rules is invalid. There are two other rules which are derivative: (7) one premise at least must be universal; (8) if one premise be particular, the conclusion must be particular also. Any syllogism which violates either of these rules violates also one or more of the first six rules given above. For the dis- cussion of the question as to the evidence of these canons, see Logic. Categorical syllogistic forms are divided into figures, and each figure into moods, which are the distinct syllogistic forms, the principle of division being as follows: The figure is deter- mined by the function of the middle term, in the two premises: it may be the subject of the major premise, and the predicate of the minor ( 1st figure); the predicate in both (2d figure), the subject in both (3d figure), the predicate of the major and the subject of the minor (4th figure). The 4th figure did not belong to the original scheme of Aristotle, and it is usually considered as both unnatural and unnecessary, being only an awkward inversion of the first. "The syllogisms of each figure are said to diff'er in mood, or ac- cording to the qualifif and the quantitti of the propositions — that is. according as these are affirmative or negative (quality), universal or particular f quantity). A conditional syllogism whose conditional major premise presents some sort of alternative is called a dilemma. We may have these cases: Either (a) alternative consequences may be as-