Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 20.djvu/929

ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN. 791 ZOOLOGY. iowever, are in admirable condition, and contain many rare and valuable species. ZOOLOGICAL STATION. An inslitnlinn for tile study of living animals. Such stations are of three principal sorts: marine, fresh water, and inland. The lirst to be developed was the marine station, the great importance of the study of marine animals and the comyiarative expen- siveness of apparatus for marine investigation leading to the establishment of great laboratories on the seashore. The most famous and finest of the marine laboratories is the one founded by Anton Dohrn (q.v.) at Naples in 1870. The Berlin Academy of Sciences and the German Gov- ernment aided in building this institution, and granted it an annual subsidy of .f-10,000. Tables are rented by various Kurnpcan governments and societies and by the many educational in- stitutions. In the United States the earliest zoological laboratory was that founded in 1873 by Louis Agassiz on the island of Penekese, in Buz- zard's Bay, Mass. Later Alexander Agassiz found- ed a private laboratory at Castle Hill, Newport, R. I., and in 1877 Prof. W. K. Brooks, of Johns Hopkins University, opened a provisional labora- tory first at Fort Wool, Va., then at Crisfield, Md., and in 1880 at Beaufort. N. C. In 1880 the United States Fish Commission established a sta- tion at Beaufort. The Marine Biological Labora- tory was founded at Woods Hole, Mass., by the Woman's Education Association of Boston, and in 1890 a large public marine laboratory was foimd- ed by the United States at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. On the Pacific Coast the Leland Stanford University has established a laboratory at Pacific Grove. In Europe there are laboratories in the Isles of Solovetsky in the White Sea, at Tromsii, ■ Norway, and at other ])oints on the Scandinavian peninsula: at Copenhagen, at Heligoland, at Kiel, at Saint Andrews, Scotland, at Port Erin (Isle of Man), at Plymouth, at Wimereux (near Boulogne), at Saint- Vaast-la-Hogue (Tatiliou Island), at Roscoft" (Finistere), at Villefranche (near Nice), and at many other points. Fresh- water zoological stations in America include those established at Havana, on the Illinois River, by the Illinois State Laboratory of Natu- ral History; on Winona Lake, by the University of Indiana ; at Sandusky, Ohio, on Lake Erie, by the Ohio State University; and at Put-in-Bay, on Lake Erie, by the United .States Govern- ment. See Laboratory. ZOOLOGY (from Gk. ^<Sov, c-oon, animal -- oyia, -lor/ia, account, from X^ftx. lerfein, to say). Tile science "which treats of animals. It is di- vided into morphology and histologv, physiology and psychology-, re]iroduction and embryology, systematic zoology or classification, paleontology', zoogeography, evolution, and bionomics. The Hi.story of Zoology. The earliest zo- ologist was Aristotle (n.c. 384-322). Do-nTi to the period of Ray and Linnseus he was the only naturalist worthy of the name. His works. The History of Animals, The Oeneration of Animals, and The Parts of Animals, contain, besides er- rors of fact or opinion, many singularly correct statements. He recognized so>iie of the more im- portant groups, which he called 'genera.' Such were the Malakia or cephalopods. Malacostraca or .soft animals with shells (the higher cru-stacea), Entoma (insects, arachnids, myriapods, and the higher worms), etc. He also dissected the cuttle- fish, oeto])us, and other animals. Zoology as a descriptive science dates from the time of Linn:vu8 (q.v.), but it was not until the rise of comparative anatoniy. embryology, mor- phology, paleontology, and the evolution theorj' that it became a well-grounded science. The predecessors of Linnaeus were Malpighi, Leeuwen- hoek, Swanimerdam. Kedi, and V. Harvey (q.v.). Harvey in IfiKi discovered the use of the heart and tire mode of the circulation of the blood in arteries and veins, and from his observa- tions on the development of the chick declared that all living things arise from an egg by a gradual process of growth and differentiation (epigcnesis) . The invcidion of the microscope by the Janssens (1590-1(100) and its improve- ment during the seventeenth century enabled Jialphigi to discover the organs named after him. Leeuwenhoek (q.v.) discovered the blood- corpuscles, striated muscle-fibres, dentinal canals, epidermal cells, and described certain infusoria, rotifers, and Hydra. Swanuuerdam dissected in- sects and snails, and worked out the metamor- phosis of certain insects. Redi was the first to combat the notion of spontaneous generation (q.v.), while Hamen (1077) discovered the sperms of animals. The history of zoology may be roughly divided into four periods: ( 1 ) Toward the end of the seventeenth cen- tury Ray, basing his ideas of the classification of animals mainly on the work of .Aristotle, was the first to arrive at some conception of fpecies and of specific characters. But it is J-inna-ns to wliom we are indebted for binomial nomenclature; and the first genuine though very imperfect classification of animals (q.v.) dates back to the Hystema Xaiurfv, the tenth edition of which appeared in 17.58. He recognized genera, orders, and classes, dividing the animal kingdom into six of the latter. As the result of his influ- ence, his' own pupils, and also Pallas, did much to advance zoology, while the anatomists and physiologists of this period were Camper, Wolff, Spallanzani, Hunter, and Vicq d'Azjr, the latter of whom proposed the term 'comparative anat- omy,' also previously used by Leibnitz. Lamarck (1744-1829) divided animals into 'vertebrate' and 'invertebrate,' and reorganized the latter di- vision, founding the classes of Infusoria, Radiata (Echinodermata) , Annelida, Arachnida, and Crustacea. He was far in advance of any other zoologist from the time of Linnseus to that of Cuvier. GeofTroy Saiht-Hilaire also advanced our knowledge of the vertebrates by establishing the orders Monotremata and Marsupialia, the latter forms having been distributed among the rodents and primates. (2) Cuvier (q.v.) was the founder of compara- tive anatomy and vertebrate paleontology, while Lamarck founded invertebrate paleontologv'. Cu- vier's work as a comparative anatomist, show- ing the importance of structure as the basis of all classifications, was most important. In di- viding the animal kingdom into four branches, he led the way for the recognition of the more numerous phyla constituting the animal world. Early in the nineteenth century GeofTro.v Saint- Hilaire advanced embryology, and foimded the doctrines of the unity of organization and of homologies, which paved the way for the theory