Public School History of England and Canada/England/Chapter 20
CHAPTER XX.
RETURN TO PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT.
1. William III.—The “New Monarchy” was now at an end, and government by Parliament, as in the days of the Plantagenets, was at last restored. The Bill of Rights gave the crown to William and Mary, and their children (if they had any), failing which it was to go to the Princess Anne and her children. So we see that William’s right to the crown was given by Parliament, and henceforth no sovereign ruled by any other title than a parliamentary one.
William III. was in every respect a remarkable man. He was an unfortunate general, yet one who succeeded by his calmness and courage in the hour of defeat in wresting gain out of his losses. He had been brought up in a land which had suffered greatly from religious persecution, and so had learned to be liberal and tolerant to people of all creeds. When quite young he had been surrounded by enemies who watched his words and actions, and he had formed the habit of keeping his own counsel and trusting but few. This, added to a disposition naturally distrustful, caused him to appear to the English people sullen and morose. When it is remembered that William suffered almost continually from ill-health, and that when in England he was living among men who constantly sought to betray him, we have an explanation of his being so unsociable and suspicious, and why he was so unpopular with his English subjects. Yet, while the English did not like his foreign ways and his foreign favorites, they knew that he alone stood between them and the loss of their religion and their political rights, and this caused them to give him their support in the days when he was most disliked.
2. Early Difficulties.—But William was not accepted as king by all his subjects. In England, some of the clergy who believed in the Divine Right of kings refused to take the oath of allegiance to him, and, in consequence, were turned out of their offices. They then formed themselves into a party called the “Non-Jurors,” and for a century elected their own bishops. The “Non-Jurors” caused a good deal of trouble, for they joined with the friends of James, or Jacobites (from Jacobus, Latin for James), in plots to have the Stuarts restored.
In Scotland, Parliament agreed to accept William as king on the condition that Presbyterianism should be restored. The English Church clergy in Scotland would now have been severely treated by the Covenanters, had not William interfered to stop the “rabbling” that began with the downfall of James. In the Highlands, the people were mostly Roman Catholics, and there an old follower of James and fierce persecutor of the Covenanters, Graham of Claverhouse, now Viscount Dundee, raised an army, which at the Pass of Killiecrankie, in July 1689, swept before it William’s troops under General Mackay. But in the hour of victory, Claverhouse was killed, and then, the Highlanders collecting all the booty they could, separated for their homes. Troops were now stationed at different posts in the Highlands and order was once more restored.
3. Massacre of Glencoe.—The Highland chiefs were gradually won over to take the oath of allegiance, and were promised a full pardon if their submission was made before the 1st January, 1692. When that time came, it was found all had taken the oath of allegiance except chief Ian Macdonald, of the Macdonalds of Glencoe. He was too proud to yield till the last moment, and then he went to the wrong place to take the oath. So it was after the 1st of January when he made his submission; nevertheless he was assured that he would not be molested. But Dalrymple, Master (or Lord) of Stair, who ruled Scotland for William, thought it an excellent opportunity to make an example of this unruly clan, Macdonald. He got William to agree to send troops into the valley of Glencoe, to “extirpate this band of thieves.” To make sure work, Dalrymple sent the foemen of the Macdonalds, the Campbells of Argyle. When the soldiers reached Glencoe they were treated with true Highland kindness and hospitality by the Macdonalds. Days were passed in feasting and dancing; and then, early one morning, in the depth of winter, the soldiers surrounded the huts of their hosts and began the work of murder. Soon thirty lay dead on the snow, and of those that escaped half-clad to the hills, the greater number perished of cold and hunger. This terrible deed has never been forgotten by the people of the Highlands, and William’s fair fame received a lasting stain by his share in this cruel and teacherous massacre.
4. Civil War in Ireland.—Before James was driven out of England he had put Ireland under the control of Tyrconnel, who raised an army of 20,000 men to aid James in case his English subjects grew rebellious. Now that he was exiled, James crossed over from France to Ireland with money and officers lent him by Louis XIV. The Irish, as a people, gave him a hearty welcome, and he was at once recognized as king throughout the greater part of Ireland. The small body of English and Scotch settlers in the island was much alarmed at James’ landing, for they feared another massacre such as had taken place in 1641. As many as could escaped to England; but in the north, they gathered together for mutual aid at Enniskillen, and at Londonderry on Lough Foyle. James proceeded to attack Londonderry, which was in a wretched condition to stand a siege. Nevertheless the people of the city, under the leadership of the Rev. Geo. Walker and Major Baker, were so brave and resolute in its defence that James had to fall back on the plan of cutting off its food supply. To prevent aid coming from England by sea, a boom made of logs of timber fastened end to end was stretched across the mouth of the Foyle. English vessels sailed up to the boom, within sight of the starving garrison, and then retreated. For one hundred and five days the siege lasted, until the garrison was reduced to eating hides and leather. At last, an order was sent from England that the vessels must make an effort to relieve the garrison. On the 30th July, 1689, two ships sailed straight for the boom which gave way, and then sailing up to the starving city, they threw in a supply of provisions. James now saw it would be of no use to continue the siege and retreated with his army. Almost at the same time, Colonel Wolseley defeated an Irish army at Newton Butler, and this freed the north of Ireland from James’ troops.
James now went to Dublin, where he set up his government. As money was scarce he met his expenses with brass money, which was to be changed for gold when he once more became king of England. In the meantime William was busy elsewhere, and had to leave the war in Ireland to his general Marshal Schomberg. Karly in 1690, Louis sent a large force to help James, and then William saw he would have to go to Ireland himself, and take an army with him. He crossed over in June, and on the 1st July, met James at the famous Battle of the Boyne, where William's daring and courage won him a great victory. James watched from a distance the battle going against his followers and then fled in terror to Dublin. Thence he crossed over to France, leaving his brave Irish soldiers to fight his battles for another year.
Led by French officers, the Irish were again defeated at Aughrim by General Ginkell, after which, under General Patrick Sarsfield, they took refuge behind the old battered and ruined walls of Limerick, which were so weak that the French general said they could be ‘‘battered down with roasted apples.” Here for months the English strove in vain to capture the last stronghold of James in Ireland. At Last General Ginkell agreed to allow Sarsfield to go out with all the honours of war, and to take his soldiers abroad wherever he wished. He also promised that the Irish should have the same freedom of religious worship they enjoyed in the time of Charles II. So Sarsfield took 14,000 men to France, and the Irish were left to become ‘‘hewers of wood and drawers of water” for their English masters. Parliament refused to be bound by Ginkell’s promise to give the Irish religious freedom, and the Treaty of Limerick, in 1691, is looked upon by the people of Ireland as a glaring instance of English perfidy.
5. Some Important Laws.—While these wars were going on, important changes were taking place in England. In 1689, the Dissenters were permitted by the ‘‘Toleration Act” to worship in their own chapels; but they were not given the right to hold offices in the army and navy or to become members of Parliament. The Roman Catholics were left under cruel and unjust laws, which, however, were not fully enforced. A revenue of £1,200,000 a year was voted William and Mary, but instead of voting it for life, as in the days of Charles II. and James II. only a part was granted, the rest being kept under the control of parliament. It was in this reign that the money needed for the public service began to be voted annually, and this made it necessary that-Parliament should meet every year.
Another very important Act in 1689 was the ‘‘Mutiny Bill,” which gave the officers of the army and navy power to form courts for the trial and punishment of offenders against discipline. This power was given at first for six months and then for a year at a time. This law also makes it necessary that Parliament should meet every year, otherwise there would be no means of maintaining order in the army and of paying the soldiers.
6. War with France.—For the first eight years of William’s reign war was going on against France. A Grand Alliance was formed in 1690, of England, Holland, Germany, Spain, and some smaller states, to keep Louis XIV. in check. For a time little was done by the Allies, and Louis had everything much his own way. The day before the Battle of the Boyne, England was disgraced by her admiral, Lord Torrington, standing aloof while a French fleet defeated the Dutch off Beachy Head. The French then sailed along the coast of England, and, landing, burned the little village of Teignmouth. Although there were many people in England who were discontented with William’s rule, nevertheless, the thought of Frenchmen landing on England’s shores roused a fierce indignation against the Jacobites, and made William much stronger in England than he was before. He now crossed over to the Netherlands to take command of the allied army which was fighting there against Louis’ forces. William was not very successful, and he lost many battles. His losses encouraged the numerous traitors at that time in England to carry on plots against him, and to treat with James for his return. Churchill was one of the basest of these traitors, and Lord Russell, the admiral of the fleet, was known at the court of James to be unfaithful. Yet, when Admiral Tourville tried to cross the channel with a French army, Russell rather than allow the French to triumph in English waters, met him at Cape La Hague, in 1692, and inflicted so heavy a loss on the French fleet that France made no further attempts to invade England.
7. The National Debt and Bank of England.—But all this fighting made heavy taxes for the English people, who had to bear the heaviest portion of the expenses of the Allies. To lighten their burdens, William’s Treasurer, Charles Montague, introduced the plan of borrowing what was needed from rich people, who received in return each year from the government interest on what they lent. It was not easy to borrow much at first, for there were no banks which could receive the savings of many people, and then lend them to the government. Butin 1694, Patterson, a Scotchman, suggested the founding of a bank, and his plan was carried out by Montague. In this way the Bank of England, perhaps the strongest bank in the world, had its beginning. Montague carried out another reform, very much needed at that time. The coin of the realm had become so worn and clipped by dishonest men, that a shilling was often worth no more than sixpence. The rich people did not feel this much for they took the coins at what they were really worth; but poor men had little choice, and their wages were often paid in this debased coin at its face value, while the coins they gave for what they bought were taken by dealers at sometimes less than their true value. Montague determined to give the nation good coin, and, at a great loss to the Treasury, he called in all the worn and clipped coins and gave coins of full weight in exchange. He also had the coins made with ‘‘milled” or ribbed edges, so that it could be easily seen whether a coin had been cut or clipped.
8. Rise of Party Government.—When William came to the throne he wished to have both Tories and Whigs among his advisers. He could not understand why they could not work together for the public interest; but he soon found out that the feeling between the two parties was too bitter to permit common action. So much trouble arose through their quarrels, that at length he listened to the advice of Karl Sunderland to choose his advisers from the party having the greatest number of supporters in Parliament. In this way our system of Party Government began, although it must not be supposed that it was carried out very thoroughly in William’s reign, or in that of his successor.
9. Useful Laws.—With the introduction of Party Government began the passage of many useful measures. A ‘‘Triennial Act,” which decreed that a new Parliament must be elected at least every three years became law in 1694; and the law which made it necessary that all books, newspapers, and pamphlets, should be licensed by a committee of the King’s Council, was allowed to drop. Henceforth any man could publish what he wished, without asking for permission. This led to better newspapers being published, although it was a long time before it was safe to publish anything against the government of the day. In 1695 the law of treason was made more just and merciful, and for the future a man charged with treason could have a lawyer to defend him, and a copy of the charges brought against him.
10. Peace of Ryswick.—While England was thus improving her laws, William had to endure many sorrows and disappointments. In 1694, Queen Mary died of small-pox, and William was almost heart-broken. Their early married life had been unhappy, through William’s sullenness and bad temper; and he had treated her with coldness and neglect. She bore all his harshness and unfaithfulness with patience, and after a time her truth, constancy, and loving disposition so melted his coldness and drove away his suspicions, that he became one of the most loyal and devoted of husbands. It is said he never recovered from the shock of her death. Then a plot was formed in 1696 to murder him; but its discovery had the effect of making his subjects more loyal. The war against Louis had been generally unsuccessful, until 1695, when William won a great victory by taking the strong fortress of Namur.
At last Louis was tired of war, and he agreed to a peace in 1697. The Treaty of Ryswick was signed, and by it Louis gave up most of his conquests and consented to acknowledge William as king of England. The nation was glad to have the war ended, and Parliament began at once to reduce the number of men in the army and navy. It even went so far as to send William’s Dutch Guards back to Holland, an act that William felt to be both ungrateful and insulting. Besides he thought a strong army was still needed, for he foresaw in the near future a new danger to the peace of Europe.
11. Spanish Succession.—This danger arose out of the sickly condition of Charles II. King of Spain, who was not expected to live many years. He had no children, and his great possessions in Spain, Italy, the Low Countries, and America, were coveted by his near relations. Louis XIV. had married Charles’ eldest sister, but he had solemnly renounced all claim to the Spanish throne on behalf of himself and his children. The Elector of Bavaria had a good claim to the throne of Spain, so also had the German Emperor Leopold. William considered it dangerous for the Emperor or one of the French royal family to become king of Spain; and so he entered into a treaty with Louis by which the greater portion of the Spanish possessions should go to the Elector of Bavaria. The Elector, however, died, and a second Partition Treaty was framed, which gave the Spanish crown and most of the Spanish territory to the Archduke Charles, the second son of the Emperor. In all these arrangements the Spanish people were not consulted; and when the facts came to light, they were very angry, and Charles II., acting under the advice of his friends, made a will and left all his dominions to Philip of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. The temptation to break the Partition Treaty was too strong for Louis, and he accepted the Spanish crown on behalf of his grandson, and put garrisons in the Spanish fortresses in the Low Countries. William was indignant, but for the time being he was powerless. His troops were few, and England refused to go to war; and so, very unwllingly, he had to assent to Louis’ breach of faith.
12. The Act of Settlement.—The English were more concerned about who should reign after Anne, than who should be king of Spain. Willham had no children, and the last of Anne’s nineteen children had just died. The fear was strong that James II.’s son would be chosen if the succession was not settled in time. So, in 1701, an ‘‘Act of Settlement” was passed, which arranged that the throne after Anne’s death should go to the Princess Sophia of Hanover and her heirs. Sophia was the grand-daughter of James I., and daughter of Elizabeth, the wife of the unfortunate Elector Palatine. Her claim by birth was not very strong, but she was the nearest Protestant relation of the royal family.
The Act of Settlement also enacted, among other things, that in future judges should hold office for life or good conduct. Henceforth judges could not be dismissed at the king’s whim or pleasure, as in the days of the Tudors and the Stuarts.
13. Death of William.—And now an event took place which made the English people as eager for war as a few months before they had been anxious for peace. James II. was visited on his death-bed by Louis XIV., and Louis promised to recognize his son James as the king of England. The English could not endure that the French king should choose a ruler for them, and at once they cried out for war. William now found no trouble in getting Parliamen to vote all the men and money he wanted. But the war was not to be waged under William’s command. His life was near its close, and an accident, by which he broke his collar bone, hastened his end. He knew no one fit to lead the armies of the Allies against Louis’ generals save Churchill, the Earl of Marlborough; and Churchill had been banished from his court some time before for his base treachery to William. He was now recalled, and trusting to his ambition to keep him faithful, William named him Captain-General of the allied armies. Then, on the 20th February, 1702, passed away one of England’s greatest kings and truest friends. He had his faults both as a man and as a ruler. He did not fully understand the English people and the English form of government, and he often acted without the consent of his Parliament in matters of grave importance. But his prudence, foresight, tolerance, and courage, saved England from the loss of her religious and political freedom at a time when England seemed powerless to save herself.