South-Indian Images of Gods and Goddesses/Chapter 4
CHAPTER IV.
SIVA.
I
Siva temples.Siva is the third member of the Hindu Triad and in Southern India is more widely worshipped than Vishnu. Hundreds of Siva temples of historic fame are found in Southern India, round which are centred traditions of Saiva saints whose period may be assigned roughly to the seventh century A.D. One noticeable peculiarity of these ancient Siva temples is that they enshrine within them images of Vishnu as also of various other gods of the Hindu Pantheon, whereas Vishnu temples are exclusive in this respect. Exception must, however, be made in the case of some very old Vishnu temples[1] sung in the hymns of the Nālāyiraprabandham which are as ancient as the corresponding Saiva scriptures collectively called Dēvāram. Here we find Siva and Vishnu often mentioned together as located in the same temple and, in a higher philosophical sense, as forming different aspects of one and the same Divine Energy.
II
Siva-linga.Siva is generally worshipped in the form of the phallus (linga) fixed on a pedestal. The phallic cult has been traced to very ancient times, its origin, however, being still involved in mystery. The worship of the creative energy of God, interpreted by the sense-perception of man and represented by the symbols yōni and linga in union, has apparently been as old as man himself. Whatever may be the origin of linga-worship, there is no doubt that it has come to be recognized like the Vaishnavite Sāligrāma described above, a perfect symbol of the formless, all-pervading Divine Being, unlimited by time and space. The Skānda-Purāna says:—"The sky is the shaft and the earth its pedestal; all gods dwell in the linga; since the whole creation finds its origin and rest there, it receives the name linga"[2] In the introduction to his translation of the Vishnu-Purāna (p. Ixix) Professor H. H. Wilson makes the following remarks on the linga-worship in India : " The linga is twofold, external and internal. The ignorant who need a visible sign, worship Siva through a ' mark ' or ' type ' which is the proper meaning of the word linga of wood or stone ; but the wise look upon this outward emblem as nothing and contemplate in their minds the invisible inscrutable type which is Siva himself. Whatever may have been the origin of this form of worship in India, the notions upon which it was founded according to the impure fancies of European writers are not to be traced even in the Saiva Purānas." Mr. Havell thinks that it " was in all probability originally derived from the votive stūpa of Buddhism."[3] If Saivism is, however, granted to be older in its origin than Buddhism the Sākyas themselves among whom Buddha was born being mentioned as having Siva for their tutelar deity [4] this theory cannot be upheld. Various forms of the linga are worshipped, from the crude uncut conical gneiss usually believed to be svayambhū or self-born [5] to the highly polished and hand-made shaft of 8, 16, 32 or more facets of the Pallava period.
Lingas, whether self-born or artificial are equally venerated, the latter being associated as regards their origin with the Sun, Moon, the Lords of the quarters or ancient sages of by gone millenniums. The linga is generally fixed in a circular or quadrangular receptacle on a high monolithic pedestal known as yōni, pānivattam or āvadaiyar.
It is a common adage that Siva is as fond of bathing as Vishnu is fond of decoration and the surface of the pedestal which receives the linga is so fashioned as to drain off the large quantity of water [6] poured over the god every day from a copper vessel with a hole at its bottom, hung directly over the shaft. In a linga considered as a symbol of Brahman, the quadrangular bottom of the shaft is believed to represent Brahmā, the octagonal middle Vishnu and the circular upper portion Siva.[7] Sahasra-linga. Sometimes a single linga is known by the name Sahasra ("the thousand")-linga (fig. 46). It is divided into twenty-five facets, each of these latter having miniature representations of forty lingas and making up thus the number one thousand.
III
Round the sanctum of a Siva temple, on its outer wall, are usually enshrined in specially formed niches the images of Ganapati and Dakshināmūrti on the south, Lingōdbhava (or sometimes, Vishnu) on the west, and Brahmā and Durga on the north. In the enclosing verandah round the central shrine may be installed the images of the sixty-three Saiva Saints, lingas which devout adherents might choose to establish for the merit of themselves or of their ancestors, the nine Planets (Navagrahas), which, since the time astrology was established in India, have been receiving divine homage, and a host of other gods and goddesses such as Kumāra (Skanda), Vīrabhadra, Bhairava, etc. Natarāja or Sabhāpati "the lord of the divine congregation" is placed in a separate shrine, generally the Sabhā-mandapa or "the assembly hall." The goddess Pārvatī, the consort of Siva, who receives all kinds of fanciful names and surnames according to local traditions, is also enshrined separately. Sometimes it is found that every important subordinate deity has a separate shrine for itself, smaller, of course, in size than the sanctum.
It may be noted that, while worship is offered in the central shrine of a Siva temple only to the formless stone linga, for processional purposes images made of metal are used; and these are of various forms and go by various names, such as Sōmāskanda, Vrishārūdha, Gangādhara, Kalyānasundara, Ardhanāri, Bhikshātana, Natarāja, etc. Instances are not uncommon where images of Siva in one of his processional forms receives more attention from the worshippers than the linga itself. In Chidambaram, for example, the image of Natarāja receives more attention and
Fig. 46.—Sahasra-linga; Tiruvottiyur.
is more famous than the movable linga of pebble which is known as Ratnasabhāpati, or the stone linga of Mūlasthāna. At Bhikshāndārkōyil in the Trichinopoly district the mendicant form of Siva is worshipped. Ardhanāri is the god worshipped at Tiruchchengōdu (Salem) and so is the bronze image of Somāskanda (under the name Tyāgarāja) worshipped at Tiruvārūr.
IV
Rudramūrti. Before describing some of the popular Siva-images[8] it may be useful to give a general description of Siva when he is represented in the form of an image. The common name then applied to him is Rudramūrti.[9] He has four hands, of which the two upper ones hold the dhakkā (kettle-drum) and the deer, the two lower hands showing the abhaya and the varada postures. His matted hair is made up in the form of a crown (jatāmakuta) on whose left shines the crescent of the moon and whose right is decorated with the jewel known as arka-pushpa. The face of a woman (i.e., of the goddess Gangā representing the river Ganges) appears over the matted hair, on the right side. He has three eyes, which represent the Sun, Moon and Fire, the last being on the forehead. He is clothed with a tiger skin above his knees and wears an undergarment and a scarf and the usual ornaments, necklace and torque, girdle round the waist, wristlets, waist-zone, armlets, arm-rings, finger-rings set with gems, anklets, and the sacred thread. The left ear of the god wears a woman's ornament called lamba-patra, while the right wears a man's ornament called makara-kundala. The left side of the neck is marked with the blue scar (caused by his having swallowed the poison kālakūta[10]). This general form of Siva may be represented either standing or seated on the lotus-pedestal with an aureola, and with or without his consort Pārvatǐ on the left side. The pedestal may also sometimes be the mahā-pitha, when, instead of the aureola behind the image, there may be the celestial tree (kalpa-vriksha).
Ashtamūrti
and Ekā.
Dasa-
Rudras.Standing images of Siva generally belong to the class known as Ashtamūrtis or Ēkādasa-Rudras. The former have generally four hands and three eyes and wear the jatāmakuta. The fore-arms exhibit the protecting and the boon-giving postures ; while the hind arms hold the tanka and the antelope. The Ēkādasa-Rudras are almost similar to Rudramūrti in form, with the black scar on the neck, the crescent on the head and the scarf of tiger-skin. In place of the dhakkā in the right upper hand is seen the axe (parasu). A form of Siva combining five Panchadēha
Mūrtibodies in one is known as Panchadēhamūrti. Though not found in any of the temples examined so far, it is often mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions as having been installed in the Rājarājēsvara (i.e., the modern BrihadīSvara) temple by the Chōla king Rājarāja or his subordinates, in the first quarter of the eleventh century A.D. The Panchadēhamūrti consisted of five images, four of which stood in the four directions and the fifth was placed in the middle, its head being higher in level than the others. [11] One of these was called Aghōra. The linga with five faces called Panchamukha-linga is only the five-bodied Panchadēhamūrti translated in terms of the symbolical phallus. [12] It has the heads of four Siva-images figured on Mahā-
Kailāsa
or Mahā-
Sadāsiva.its four sides. The illustration from Tiruvānaikkāval (fig. 47) does not show any face at the top. The Skānda-Purāna mentions a seated form of Siva called Mahākailāsa or Mahā-Sadāsiva which is represented with twenty-five faces and fifty hands, wears a garland of skulls and is clothed in tiger's skin.
V
Natarāja
or Sabhāpati. Images answering to the two names Natarāja and Sabhapati, in the Hindu Pantheon, are identical in design. Natarāja (the prince of dancers) is the well-known dancing form of god Siva. It has four arms and a body besmeared with ashes. The back arm on the right side holds the kettledrum (udukkai, as it is called in Tamil) while the other presents the raised palm of protection (abhaya). Of the pair on the left, the upper holds a fire-pot and the lower is bent round
1 According to Hemadri these may be substituted by the club and the trident.'
Fig. 47.—Panchamukha-linga; Tiruvanaikkaval.
across the breast to the right side its fingers gracefully pointing below, towards the left leg which is raised in a dancing posture. The position of this hand is known as gaja-hasta, "the elephant-trunk." The ecstatic and violent nature of the dance, described as Ānanda-tāndava in the sequel, whirling quickly round on one leg, placed on the back of the demon Musalagan or Apasmāra [13] , is indicated by the matted hair (jata) stretching out on both sides of the head in wavy lines one above the other and by the cloth, partly tied round the waist and partly thrown over the left shoulder, also flying in the air (fig. 48). The right hand which shows the abhaya has on its wrist a serpent, which is the usual ornament of Siva and may have I, 3, 5 or 7 hoods. Another serpent, in the hand of the demon below, is explained by Mr. Havell (Ideals of Indian Art, p. 79) to be the corresponding wrist ornament on the left arm which had dropped down in the dance. We are told in the Kāsyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat Tantra that a serpent with raised hood is to be shown playing near Apasmāra on his left side, the right hand of the demon pointing towards it (vyāla-mudrā?). The head of Siva wears peacock's feathers, or an ornament fashioned like them, which is a special characteristic of the image. The aureola (prabhā), which every metallic image necessarily has, is, in this case, somewhat peculiar and significant, being surmounted all round with flames of fire similar to the one which is held in the pot or cup in one of the two left arms of the image. [14] The pedestal on which the figure rests is a double lotus flower placed back to back. Sometimes the jatas are not spread out but are tied and made up in the form of jatāmakuta (fig. 49).
Siva is said to dance in the evening in the presence of the goddess Pārvatī in order to relieve the sufferings of the dēvas. The dance of Natarāja is believed to symbolize the action of cosmic energy in creating, preserving and destroying the visible universe. The Purānas say that during these dances the whole congregation of gods, demigods and saints present themselves to render their obeisance to Siva. Hence the name Sabhāpati, "the lord of the .jpg)
Fig. 48.–Nataraja (metal) ; Panchanadakkulam.
.jpg)
Fig. 49.–Nataraja (metal); Ramesvaram.
Fig. 50.–Urdhva-tandava; Tiruppanandal.
Ananda-
Tāndava.The Āgamas speak of seven dancing postures of Siva. The first, called Ānanda-tāndava or the joyous dance, has been described above.
Sandhya-
Tāndava.The second is his evening dance Sandhya-tāndava. [17] In this form the demon Apasmāra is absent and the symbols in the two left arms are the peacock-feathers and the pose of wonder called vismaya.
Umā-Tānda
va.The third is the Umā-tāndava, i.e., dance with his consort Umā. In this Siva has two more arms, the additional right hand holding the trident (trisūla) and the three left hands exhibiting the skull, vismaya, and the gaja-hasta. The left leg is placed on Apasmāra and the right leg is stretched towards the left, and the goddess Umā stands on the left side.
Gauri
Tāndava.The fourth, Gaurī-tāndava, is almost similar to the first, but in one of the left hands of the god is held a serpent. Nandi
stands on the right side and Gaurī (Pārvatī) is on the left.[18]
Kālikā-
Tāndava.In the fifth form, called Kālikā-tāndava,the god has only two eyes, but eight arms. Three of the right arms hold the trident, noose and kettle-drum and the corresponding left hold the skull, fire-pot and the bell ; the two remaining arms exhibit the abhaya the right and gaja-hasta on the left (fig. 53).[19]
Tripura-
Tāndava.The dance of Siva, with sixteen arms and as many symbols, having Gaurī and Skanda on the left and right sides respectively, [20] receives the name Tripura-tāndava.
Samhāra-
Tāndava.The last dance called Samhāra-tāndava " the death-dance " shows the god with three eyes and eight arms. The left leg
is placed on Apasmāra and the right leg is raised. In the right
P- 33)' This description closely agrees with the figure of Patanjali on the eastern
gopura of the Nataraja temple at Chidambaram. On the same gopura is the image of Vyaghrapada in which the sage is represented as having tiger's claws on both his hands and feet. The sage is carrying on his right shoulder a hook and a flower basket. .jpg)
Fig. 51. - Patanjali ; Chidambaram.
.jpg)
Fig. 52. Vyāghrapāda ; Chidambaram.
Fig. 53.—Kalika-tandava (metal); Nallur.
hands are seen the abhaya, trident, noose and the kettle-drum ; the left hands exhibit the skull and the fire-pot and the postures vismaya and gaja-hasta. On the right and left sides respectively are Nandi and Gaurī.
Other Āgamas again, refer to 108 dancing forms of Siva nine of which are said to be celebrated. Of these latter the only one that deserves to be noted is that in which the god has his right leg raised straight up so as to reach the top of
Ūrdhva-
Tandava.the crown (ushnisha). Perhaps, this is the Ūrdhva-tāndava, described already. He may have four, eight or sixteen arms.
No account of Natarāja could be complete without a short history of Chidambaram and Chidam-
baram; its
history.its temple. Tradition has it that years ago a king from the north, called Simhavarman, came south on a pilgrimage. All this part of the country was then one huge forest. The king happened to bathe in a well, and immediately found himself transformed into a bright golden figure. He assumed the name Hiranyavarman " the gold-armoured " on that account and covered with gold the Siva temple which he discovered near that well. It is stated that before him the sages Patanjali and Vyāghrapāda had worshipped there. Simhavarman and Hiranyavarman are Pallava names and denote that the origin of the temple may be roughly traced to that period. Historically, it was the Chōla king Parāntaka I, surnamed Vīra-Chōla and Vīra-Nārāyana (A.D. 907 to about 951) who covered the Chidambaram temple with gold, perhaps for the first time. Successive Chola kings, after him, are known to have added to the grandeur of it.[21] A later Pallava chief of the thirteenth century A.D. called Perunjingadēva boasts of having conquered the four quarters and utilized the booty secured, in decorating the eastern gōpura of the Chidambaram temple which he had himself constructed. [22] The great Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya of the sixteenth century A.D. built the north gopura of the same temple after his victorious return from a campaign in the north. It is well known that as a sacred place of pilgrimage Chidambaram is intimately connected with the Saiva saint Mānikyavāchaka (Mānikkavāsagar), the Pariah saint Nandanār both of whom attained their salvation
there and with the Saiva philosopher and scholar AppayaDīkshita who was much devoted to that temple. The place is mentioned in the Saiva hymns of the Dēvāram, in which it
is called Tillai. The 3,000 Brāhmana families of Tillai (which may have once lived there but have at present dwindled down to a few hundreds) claim Siva to be one of them and worship Natarāja as their family deity.
VI
. The Āgamas mention, as already stated, [23] twenty-five sportive forms (lilā-mūrtis) of Siva, most of which are usually met with in South-Indian temples. One of the more important of these is Dakshināmūrti. In Chōla temples this image generally occupies a niche in the south wall of the central shrine. Dakshināmūrti or Dharma-Vyākhyānamūrti is the form of Siva engaged in yōga Dakshinā
Mūrti.or philosophic contemplation. Once upon a time Daksha, the father-in-law of Siva, insulted him and his consort Umā, by not inviting them to a sacrifice which he was performing. Umā nevertheless went uninvited to her father's house, but being grossly neglected jumped into the sacrificial fire-pit and destroyed herself. Siva was furious ; he created out of a lock of his hair the terrible Vīrabhadra (see below, p. 155) who destroyed Daksha. Siva then retired to a forest with the resolve not to marry again and sat underneath a banyan tree deeply engaged in meditation. The gods were much concerned ; for it meant that the world would loose the benefit of Siva's direct intervention in its affairs. They accordingly induced Kāma, [24] the god of love, to stir up once again in the mind of Siva the dormant embers of love. The fool-hardy Kāma incautiously approached the god engaged in meditation and shot his flowery arrows at him and hit him. Siva then opened his eye of fire and looked straight at Kāma, when lo! he was at once reduced to a heap of ashes. [25] Still Kāma had succeeded. For, soon afterwards Siva gave up his penance and married once again Umā, who had now incarnated as Pārvatī, the beautiful daughter of Himavat (the Himalayas). This is the story of Dakshināmũrti. [26] He is always conceived to be a youthful teacher, seated beneath a banyan tree, teaching aged pupils and removing their doubts by his very silence.
The general posture of the images of Dakshināmũrti show him with his right leg bent vertically at the knee and placed on the body of the dark demon Apasmārā [27] and the left leg bent across so as to rest upon the right thigh. He has a calm countenance, indicative of perfect peace within. His matted locks are either dishevelled or are formed into a jatāmakuta tied together by a serpent (fig. 54). The body is besmeared with ashes and all the usual ornaments of Siva decorate him. The sages Nārada, Jamadagni, Vasishtha and Bhrigu sit at his feet on the right side, receiving instruction, while Bharadvāja, Saunaka, Agastya and Bhārgava sit on the left. The bullvehicle of the god, the denizens of the forest, Kinnaras and other demi-gods are also seen on the Kailāsa mountain on which the god is seated. [28] His right fore-arm points the jnannmudrā (the pose conveying philosophical knowledge) Vinadhara-
Dakshinā
Mūrti,
Jnānamūrti,
and Yōga-
Mūrti.and the back arm holds the rosary (or, the serpent) ; the left fore-arm shows the boon-conferring (varada) attitude or is sometimes freely stretched, the back of the palm resting in either case on the left knee/ Some illustrations show a book in the place of the varada posture. The remaining hand on the left side holds the fire-pot, the deer, the kettle-drum or the rosary. When Dakshināmūrti holds in his fore-arms the lute (vinā) and changes the posture of his left leg―apparently for keeping the vinā position he is called Vīnadhara-Dakshināmūrti (fig 55). Jnānamūrti is another form of the same god in which the symbol jnāna-mudrā of the right fore-arm is raised close to the heart with the palm of the hand turned inwards. The name Yōgamūrti (or Yōga-Dakshināmūrti) is applied when the legs crossing each other from the root of the thigh are held in position by the belt yōgapatta, passing round the waist and the
Fig. 54.—Dakshināmūrti; Āvūr.
Fig. 55.–Vinādhara-Dakshināmūrti; Chidambaram.
fore-legs, a little below the knee. The front arms are in this case, stretched out and rest freely on the knees, while the back arms hold the rosary and the water pot. The illustration (fig. 56) differs, however, in the symbols. In this, the upper hands hold the water-pot and the antelope and the lower hands the rosary (with jnāna-mudrā) and the book. A fine old picture (fig. 57) coming from Tiruvengavāsal (Pudukkōttai State) shows Dakshināmūrti in a different position and with different symbols.
VII
BhavaLingōdbhava "the linga-manifestation," is a familiar figure of Siva seen on the west wall of the central shrine of Siva temples built in Chōla times. As his name implies, he is represented within a huge linga, the portion of the feet below the ankles being hidden in the linga. Brahmā in the form of a swan is seen soaring up on the left side of Siva ; while, on the right side, Vishnu is delving below into the depths of the earth in the form of a boar. [29] Also these gods (i.e., Brahmā and Vishnu) in their true glory stand on either side of Siva with folded hands. The figure emanating from the middle of the linga (fig. 58) has four hands like Chandrasēkhara (described below) and holds in its back arms the axe and the antelope and in the front hands, the abhaya and the varada postures. In the illustration given, the left hand is, however, seen resting freely on the waist. In the Tanjore inscriptions, Lingōdbhava is mentioned by the name Lingapurānadēva, i.e., the god of the Linga-Purāna which describes the greatness of the linga. The story runs that a dispute arose between Brahmā and Vishnu as to who is the greater of the two. Siva told them that whoever first saw the top or the bottom of his own fiery linga-form [30] and came back to report, he would be considered the greater. Brahmā soared on his swan to see the top of the Siva-linga, while Vishnu as a boar dug down and down to see its bottom. Ages passed away and neither came to his goal. At last Brahmā saw one kētaki flower coming down. It had fallen from Siva's head ages ago. Brahmā suborned it to give false evidence and then came back and uttered a lie, saying that he had seen the top of the linga, citing the ketaki flower as his witness. Siva knew the lie and cursed Brahmā that he should thenceforward go without any worship in temples. Brahma had five heads at this time.
Fig. 56.–Yoga-Dakshinamurti; Conjeeveram.
Fig. 57.–Dakshinamurti; Tiruvengavasal.
Fig. 58.–Lingodbhava; Tanjore.
Siva also cut off the head which uttered the lie[31]. The flower ketaki too, which abetted the crime, was excluded from the flowers dear to Siva. On an apology being offered, the latter was however accepted, as a special case, during the worship on the night of the Sivarātri festival which falls on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Māgha (January-February) in each year and is held sacred in honour of the linga- manifestation of Siva.
Ēkapada
Mūrti.
Perhaps, images called Ēkapādamūrti or Ēkapada-Trimurti, in which the gods Brahmā and Vishnu, with folded hands and characteristic symbols, are represented as proceeding out of the body of Siva at his waist as in the Tiruvottiyūr image (fig. 59) or from behind his knee as in the image from Tiruvānaikkāval (fig. 60) are either developments of Lingōdbhava wherein the superiority of Siva over the two other members of the Hindu Triad was established, or an invention of the Indian sculptor in which is symbolized the underlying unity of the three gods. [32] The Kāranāgama mentions Ēkapāda murti as one of the sportive forms of Siva and describes him as having one foot, three eyes and four arms in which are seen the tanka and deer and the varada and the abhaya postures. On the right and left sides of Siva, almost touching his shoulders, are Brahmā and Vishnu holding their symbolical weapons in two hands and worshipping Siva with the other two.
The single foot which is the characteristic feature of these figures, is, in the case of the Tiruvanaikkaval image, placed on the back of the bull. In it are also seen the vehicle of Brahma, viz., the swan, at the right bottom and, at the corresponding left bottom, the standing Garuda vehicle of Vishnu and a sage perhaps Narada. Apparently Ekapadamurti has to be connected with Ajaikapad, a name given in the Rig-Veda to one of the Ekadasa-Rudras. [33]
VIII
Bhikshatana tana
The story of Lingōdbhava introduces us to another form of Siva, known as Bhikshatana, very often seen in South-Indian temples. When Siva cut off one of the heads of 
Fig. 59.–Ekapada-Trimurti; Tiruvottiyur.
Fig. 60.–Ekapada-Trimurti; Tiruvanaikkaval.
Fig. 61.–Mohini (metal); Valuvur.
Fig. 62.–Bhikshatanamurti (metal); Valuvur.
IX
Kankāla
MūrtiKankālamūrti is a form closely allied to Bhikshātana and almost similar in appearance. According to the Mayamata, '
Kankālamūrti is draped in a fine cloth and is surrounded by lovely women. In his upper right hand he holds the peacock's feathers and skeleton (kankāla) and in the upper left the tanka. A serpent is coiled round his loins ; and he has a knife stuck into the girdle on the right side of his waist (figs. 63 and 64). He is generally attended by demons. Birds and beasts follow him in expectation of getting something to eat from his hands. The description given of Kankālamūrti in the Kāsyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra is different. He has a jatāmakuta [37] decorated with serpents, the crescent-moon and flowers ; he is holding the kettle-drum in his left fore-arm and a stick (to beat it with) in the corresponding right ; the other right hand is in the pose simha-karna and touches the mouth of the antelope, while the left carries a bunch of peacock's feathers on a staff. He also wears a necklace of skeletons (kankāla) which according to the Āditya-Purāna are supposed to be those of Vishnu in his various incarnations. Sometimes he may be represented also as carrying on his shoulder a kankāla (skeleton) tied by a rope to the staff.
X
Kalyāna.
Sundara.
Mūrti.The form of Siva, decorated as a bridegroom, is called Kalyānasundaramūrti or Vāivāhikamūrti. Siva in this form is represented as a fair youth, with three eyes and four arms. He is clothed in the best of garments and wears a garland of blue lilies. On his right side stands Pārvatī, his bride, whose right hand he holds with his own. In his back hands are seen the symbols, tanka (or sometimes the axe) and the black buck. The left lower hand shows the boon-giving posture. His matted locks are made up in the fashion of a jatāmakuta on which is stuck the crescent of the moon. The general posture of the god is what is called samabhanga, or the medium bend, wherein the figure stands with the right leg slightly bent and the left leg placed firmly on the ground. The goddess on the right side is represented as a fully developed maiden. She has only two hands, one of which holds a lily. Brahmā, having in his four hands the rosary, water-pot,
Fig. 63.–Kankalamurti (melal); Tenkasi.
Fig. 64.–Kankalamurti; Dharasuram.
Fig. 65.–Kalyanasundara; Madura.
the sacrificial ladle (srik) and the spoon (sruva) (or, the book), is seated on a lotus flower in front of a square fire-pit facing northwards, and offering oblations to the sacrificial fire, which is burning in front with five flames. Mēnakā and Himavat, the parents of the goddess, are standing to her right, carrying a golden pot, from which they pour water into the hands of Siva and Parvatī in token of giving away their daughter in marriage to him. The sages Sanaka and Sanandana stand to the left of the god with folded hands. Vishnu is present with the whole congregation of gods and goddesses. This description of Kalyānasundara is found in all its details in a figure from Elephanta. The Kāsyapa-Silpa of the AmsumatTantra and the Silpasangraha say that Vishnu in the tribhanga attitude faces south and stands on the north side of the sacrificial fire-pit with conch and discus in his back arms. He pours with his two other hands water from a gold pot into the hands of Siva and Pārvatī (fig. 65). The Mayamata describes Pārvatī as standing by the side of Lakshmi. It looks as if Menaka and Himavat are sometimes substituted by Lakshmī and Vishnu. A fine image of Kalyānasundara comes from the Chidambaram temple (fig. 66). Svayamvarā is the name given in the Silparatna to the figure of Pārvatī as a bride. She holds a garland of flowers and walks towards Sambhu (Siva) to choose him as her husband.
XI
SōmāskandaSomaskanda is the most common of all the sportive forms of Siva. Its design is as old as the Pallava period and it may be found on the back wall of the sanctum immediately behind the linga in almost every temple which pretends to belong to that age. The group, e.g., is found engraved on the back wall of a niche in the second storey of the Dharmarāja-ratha at Mahābalipuram which, according to an inscription cut on the lintel, was apparently intended to be a shrine for the Siva-linga called Atyantakāma-Pallavēsvara. It is also seen on the back wall of the Siva shrine facing the sea, in the "Shore Temple." The Sāluvankuppam cave, called Atiranachanda-Pallavēsvara, also has the same image. A similar panel is also found in the Kailāsanātha temple at Kānchī. Later Chōla temples, however, do not show any such panel on the wall behind the linga. On one and the same pedestal are seen Siva and Umā with the child Skanda standing (or seated) between them. Both the god and the goddess are seated comfortably (sukhāsana), with one leg (right in the case of Siva and left in the case of Parvatī) hanging down
Fig. 66.–Kalyanasundara and Svayamvara; Chidambaram.
Fig. 67.–Somaskanda (metal); Sivankudal.
and the other bent crosswise so as to lie flat on the pedestal. The god holds in his upper hands the tanka (or, the axe) and the deer and in the lower exhibits the varada and the abhaya postures. The goddess holds a lily in her right hand and shows the varada or the kataka pose [38] in her left (fig. 67). She may sometimes also be represented as resting the palm of her left hand on the pedestal by the side of her left thigh while the right hand, as before, holds the lily. Skanda has the crown karandamakuta and holds in one of his hands a flower, a wood-apple or a mango. According to the Kāranāgama the group must be flanked by two standing or seated figures called Bhōga-Sakti and Vīra-Sakti on the left and right sides respectively.[39] It is also stated that the right side of the pedestal on which the god sits is to be slightly higher than the left.
A photograph from Mahābalipuram (fig. 68) is worth noting in this connexion. It shows Siva in the comfortably seated posture. In his upper hands, however, the symbols, evidently of tanka and the deer, are missing. The right lower is in the posture of abhaya and the left lower in that of kataka. It is also possible that the latter is resting freely on the thigh. Pārvatī is seated on Siva's left side, turning her face towards him and holding the child Skanda on her knee. In the upper corners are seen flying dwarfs, apparently holding flywhisks in their hands. The whole group is flanked by two four-armed gods raising respectively the upper left and right arms and pointing them towards Siva.
Among the Mahābalipuram sculptures we find still another scene of Saiva pictures apparently allied to Sōmāskanda just described, viz., Sukhāsana or UmāsahitaSūkhāsana
or Umā-
Sahita. mentioned in footnote I on p. 76. Here, on a pedestal supported by two lion-pillars and the recumbant bull between them, is a seated figure of Siva with a robe of ornamental fringes, hanging loosely from above his right shoulder. In his right upper hand he holds a furious serpent. What the position of his left upper hand indicates, is not clear. Of the two other hands, the left lower rests freely on his right leg and the left thigh, while the right lower exhibits a position of the fingers which suggests that the god must have held some weapon. The high jatāmakuta, the divine halo (circle of light) round the face, the necklaces, pendants, ear-rings, waist-band, rings on hands and a thick
Fig. 68.–Somaskanda (metal); Seven Pagodas.
Fig. 69.–Umasahita; Seven Pagodas.
chord across the breast representing the Brahmanical thread yajnōpavita, are the other jewels seen on the figure of Siva. To the right of Siva's shoulder is Brahmā with the water-pot in one hand and the erect rosary in the other. The sacred thread of Brahmā has four strings. Between the heads of Brahmā and Siva is a circular disc which perhaps represents the Sun. Near the left shoulder of Siva is Vishnu holding the discus and the conch in his two upper hands. Here again, the position of the two lower hands is not clear. The sacred thread of Vishnu has three strings. His crown though high like that of the two other gods is shaped somewhat differently. Parvatī (Siva's consort) with the child Skanda on her right lap is seated on the left side of Siva. Her left foot is placed on the back of the couchant bull. She as well as her child have only two arms each. Close to her left foot, behind the bull, is a female attendant of Pārvatī, who raises her right hand resting it on the back of the bull. Between the head of the goddess and that of Vishnu is seen what is perhaps to be interpreted as the crescent of the Moon, corresponding to the Sun on the other side. But the short handle attached to it at the bottom seems to show that it may be an umbrella of honour held over the head of the Umā- Mahes-
Vara.goddess (fig. 69). A similar group, called Umā Mahēsvara according to Hēmadri, consists of Siva and PārvatI, the former having eight faces and two hands. The left hand of the god is stretched over the shoulder of the goddess and the right hand of the goddess over that of the god. The Kāranāgamadescribing this group states that the goddess Pārvati should be seated on the left side of Siva with the bull in front of them, Indra and other gods behind, Vishnu and Brahmā on the sides and the devotees Bhringi, Narada, Bāna, Bhairava, Ganapati, Skanda and Virēsvara in the eight cardinal points. Rai Bahadur Venkayya considered this description to be that of Rishabhavāhana (Vrishavāhana) [40] mentioned in the next paragraph.
XII
Vrisha-
RūdhaVrishārudha is a figure of Siva seated on the bull with the right leg hanging down and the left bent so as to rest on the bull. He has Ganapati on his right side and Gauri on his left. [41] He holds in his two upper hands the tanka and the antelope. When, however, Siva is made to stand leaning against the bull and is not mounted on it, the Kāsyapa-Silpa calls him Vrishava-
Hana. Vrishavāhana. In this case the elbow (kūrpara) of the right hand of Siva rests on the head of the bull as in the illustrations (figs. 70 and 7l). [42] The Mayamata also gives the same description, but adds that the bull stands behind the seat on which the god and goddess sit. The right lower hand of Siva holds the trident while the two upper hands hold the axe and the deer.
XIII
Sēkhara-
MūrtiChandrasēkharamūrti [43] (the crescent-crested lord) may, according to the Kāsyapa-Silpa of the Amsumat-Tantra, be represented in two different forms, either alone or in company of the goddess Gaurī. When alone, he stands on the pedestal with level feet (samapāda), holding the antelope and the kettle-drum (or, axe) in his back arms and presenting the abhaya and the varada postures in the fore-arms. The crescent decorates the jatāmakuta of the god, either on its right side or on the left. In other respects the image is a pleasing representation (fig. 72) of the general form of Rudra described above. When accompanied by the goddess he may also be seated (fig. 73). The right lower hand shows the abhaya posture and the left lower passes round the back of the yielding goddess and touches her breasts. Some Agamas do not permit the hand to be stretched so far, but only up to the left arm of the goddess. The illustration from Bāgali (fig. 74) answers to this description but holds the trident and the kettle-drum in the upper hands instead of the axe and the deer. The goddess also with her right hand touches the right side of the waist-band of the god from the back and holds a flower in her left. She may also be seen passing her hand over his shoulder. Such figures of Chandrasēkhara are called Ālinganamūrti or the embracing form. They are also known as Pradōshamūrti, since in all well-maintained Siva temples,
Fig. 70.–Vrishavahana; Chidambaram.
Fig. 71.–Vrishavahana (metal); Vedaranyam.
Fig. 72.–Chandrasekhara (metal); Tiruvottiyur.
Fig. 73.–Chandrasekhara; Tanjore.
Fig. 74.–Chandrasekhara (Alinganamūrti); Bāgali.
the image is carried about in procession in the evenings (pradōsha).
XIV
Fig. 75.–Ardhanari; Madura.
Fig. 76.–Ardhanari; Kumbakonam.
Fig. 77.–Ardhanari; Tanjore.
Fig. 78.–Ardhanari; Tiruchchengodu.
behind) and a circle of light in the back ground. This is apparently an unusual form (fig. 79). Still another unusual form comes from Tiruvādi near Tanjore, in which the right half is woman and the left half male (fig. 80).
XV
Harihara or
Sankara-
NārayanaA similar composite image of Siva is the one called Harihara or Sankaranārāyana. In this image the left half is Vishnu and the right half Siva. Accordingly we see on the left side of the figures of Harihara, the conch, the pearl-necklace, the mark Srivatsa and the brilliant ear-ring characteristic of Vishnu and on the right side the skull, the garland of bones, the river Gangā, the serpent coil of the ear-ring and the trident or axe, characteristic of Siva. So too the colour of the body is blue on the left and white on the right. Similarly, Garuda, the vehicle of Vishnu, may be seen standing on the left and the bull of Siva on the right. Sankaranāyinārkōyil in the Tinnevelly district has a famous temple dedicated to this combined form of Sankara (Siva) and Nārāyana (Vishnu).
The illustration given (fig. 8l) comes from Nāmakkal. A similar but more finished figure of Sankaranārāyana is found at Chidambaram in which attendant sages and demi-gods are also depicted.
XVI
Gajaha
MūrtiFine images of Siva represented as the slayer of the elephant-demon are not uncommon in South-Indian temples. In this form he receives the name Gajahāmūrti. The image has eight hands generally, but may have occasionally only four. The two uppermost hands are stretched out and hold the hide of the elephant with its tail bent upwards in the form of an aureola, while on the sides of
this aureola are seen the legs of the elephant hanging. In the three right hands are held the trident, the kettle-drum (or the sword) and the noose (or the tusk of the elephant). Two of the three left hands hold the tusk (or shield) and the skull (kapāla), while the third exhibits the posture indicating astonishment (vismaya) or sometimes holds a bell. The left leg is placed on the elephant-head of the giant and the right is raised up so as to reach the left thigh. A good figure answering to this description comes from Pērūr near Coimbatore. The Valuvūr image (Madras Archaeological Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate IX, fig. 2) and the Tirutturaippūndi and the Dhārāsuram images (here illustrated) show the contrary position of the legs. The god has a terrible face with protruding teeth; and by his side is seen standing the
Fig. 79.–Ardhanari; Dharasuram.
Fig. 80.–Ardhanari; Tiruvadi.
Fig. 81.–Sankaranarayana; Namakkal.
frightened goddess Umā with the young Skanda beside her (fig. 82). The Kāranāgama mentions the weapons tanka and deer and the pointing-finger-pose (sūchi). [45] This last posture of the hand is noticed both in the Tirutturaippūndi and the Dhārāsuram stone images. The former has perhaps five heads (of which three alone are visible on the picture). It has ten hands and more attendant figures (fig. 83).
XVII
Gangā-
DharaGangadhara, " the bearer of Gangā (the Ganges)," is a form of Siva which illustrates a well-known Purānic story. The story of the descent of the heavenly Ganges into the earth to purify the ashes of the sinful sons of Sagara, a king of the Solar race, is related in the Rāmāyana. At the prayer of Bhagīratha, a later member of the same family, " the river of the gods " consented to direct her course to the earth, but her force was such that the earth was unable to bear the shock. So Bhagīratha prayed to Siva and the latter consented to receive the Ganges on his matted locks. The river, proud of her might, came down with all her force as if to crush Siva, but found herself lost altogether in the tangled maze of Siva's locks. Gangā then became humble and Siva let her flow forth again from his locks in a tiny trickle. The river-goddess, the heavenly Ganges, is believed since then to abide in Siva's matted hair as one of his consorts. This latter subject of letting the Ganges flow out of his matted hair as a tiny rivulet is Gangāvisar-
Janamūrtirepresented in figures generally known as Gangāvisarjanamūrti. No distinction, however, has been made in the Āgamas between Gangādhara and Gangāvisarjana. He stands on a lotus pedestal with the right leg straight and the left slightly bent. The image is represented as embracing the goddess Gaurī, consoling and assuring her that his affections would not be transferred to the river goddess. [46] One right arm holds up a lock of his hair, on which is seen the goddess Gangā. A left arm holds the antelope. The goddess Gaurī with a dejected face (virahitānanā) is represented in the samabhanga posture with her left leg placed straight on the pedestal and the right leg slightly bent. Her right hand stretches down or is sometimes held
Fig. 82.–Gajahamurti; Dharasuram.
Fig. 83.–Gajahamurti; Tirutturaippundi.
akimbo while the left holds a flower. The god and the goddess are highly decorated (figs. 84 and 85). In the first illustration from Gangaikonda-sōlapuram, Gaurī appears as if she is desirous of being let alone but her anxious husband is holding her fast. Figures of Gangādhara are sometimes seen without Gaurī on the side. In such cases he has four hands, of which the right upper supports Gangā on the lock and the left upper holds the deer. Of the two others the right fore-arm rests on the face of the bull against which the god leans and the left rests freely on the waist (fig. 86). The bull, not seen in the illustration, is distinct in a similar figure from the Siva temple at Kodumbālur. Bhagīratha, who was the cause of the descent of Gangā, may also be shown standing together with other rishis to the right of Siva. This is found only in an illustration from Burgess's Elura Cave Temples. [47]
One other figure (or rather group of figures) representing Gangādhara (fig. 87) comes from the rock-cut cave at Trichinopoly and deserves notice. The central image is Siva with four hands. The upper right hand holds a lock of hair in order to receive evidently the goddess Gangā descending from the clouds. The upper left seems to hold a rosary. The left lower hand rests on the waist and the corresponding right holds by the tail a serpent with the raised hood. The left leg of Siva is placed straight on the ground and the right which is bent at the knee is placed on the head of a demon (perhaps Musalagan) who also supports the leg with his left hand which is raised up. The god is fully decorated. Round him are four attendant sages, two of whom are kneeling at the feet, the other two worshipping from behind. Above the group are two dēvas flying in the air on either side of the god's head. Although the details given above do not agree with any particular description given in the Āgamas, it appears to me that it represents Siva standing ready prepared to receive in his locks the rushing torrent of the river of the gods. One of the attendant sages may, in this case, be Bhagīratha at whose request Gangā descended from the heavens.
XVIII
Kalahara-
MūrtiAnother Purānic story is illustrated in the form Kālahā, or Kālaharamūrti, " the destroyer of the god of Death." Mārkandēya was a young boy, greatly devoted to the worship of Siva. The fates had decreed that he should not live
Fig. 84.–Gangadhara; Gangaikondasolapuram.
Fig. 85.–Gangadhara (metal); Vaidisvarankoyil.
Fig. 86.–Gangadhara; Tanjore.
Fig. 87.–Gangadhara; Trichinopoly.
beyond his sixteenth year. His father was very disconsolate as the boy approached the end of his appointed time on earth. But Mārkandēya was not afraid and spent all his time worshipping Siva. While thus engaged, the god of Death (Kāla), whose duty it is to take the breath of life away from the mortal body at the appointed time, came up to the boy, with his weapons, the club and the noose, riding on his fierce buffalo. He was not daunted by the fact that the boy was engaged in holy duty but at once threw his relentless noose on the boy and began to pull his life out. The boy was frightened at the sight of the terrible god of Death and caught hold of the Siva-linga with both his hands. Siva then burst out from within the linga and, with one foot still placed on the linga, he kicked with the other the transgressing god of Death, pierced him with his trident and vanquished him. [48] This is the Purānic story of Kālaharamūrti. According to the Āgamas he is represented as placing his right leg on the linga in the same attitude as that of the dancing Natarāja. His left leg, which is bent and raised, is placed on the breast of Kāla. The god wears a jatāmakuta and has an angry look, protruding teeth, three eyes and four (or sometimes eight) hands. The fore-arm on the right side holds the trident pointed downwards and raised to the level of the ear. The other right hand holds the axe while the two left hands exhibit the varada (with skull in palm) and the vismaya [49] postures (fig. 88). The Kāranāgama adds that he must also be accompanied by the goddess. The god of Death has two arms and protruding teeth. He holds the noose and is lying flat on the ground with legs stretched out wide apart. In the sketch from Chandragiri (fig. 89) is seen Mārkandēya with the noose round his neck and embracing the linga. Siva also is seen holding the trident in two hands while Yama is attacking the young sage with a trident.
XIX
Nīlakantha,Srīkantha and Vishakantha are three synonymous names of Siva, Nīlakantha
or Srī-
Kanthagiven to him on account of his having swallowed the deadly poison (kālakūta) produced at the churning of the ocean by the dēvas and dānavas under instructions from the Creator, in order to obtain divine nectar. The
Fig. 88.–Kalaharamurti; Pattisvaram.
Fig. 89.–Kalaharamurti; Chandragiri.
mountain Mandara was their churn-stick, the primeval Tortoise (who was Vishnu himself) the pivot on which the stick rested and turned, and the serpent Vāsuki the churning rope. By a clever device of Vishnu, the dānavas held the head and the dēvas the tail of the serpent. They churned and churned. Many great and splendid things came foaming up and every one was eager to seize what pleased him most. But all at once something black began to rise. It grew and grew and darkened the whole universe. All the gods and demons were mortally afraid. For it was the deadliest of poisons, death to them and death to all the universe. In this moment of horror they called on Siva to help them. The mighty god came and took the poison in the hollow of his hand and swallowed it. That which was enough to kill the universe served only to stain his neck with a bluish tint. Thus he came to be called "the poison-necked" or "the blue-necked"
Vishāpaha-
Ramūrtigod.[50] The Kārānagama describing a form of Siva called Vishāpaharamūrti, " the destroyer of poison " says that he has one face, three eyes, braided hair and four arms holding in the two upper the antelope and the axe. He is in the posture of drinking the poison which is held in the right lower hand. The left lower shows the boon-giving posture. On the left side of the god is the goddess with two arms. She shows an anxious countenance and holds the neck of Siva as if to prevent the poison from going down.
XX
Tripuran-
TakamūrtiTwo other forms of Siva connected with Purānic stories may be mentioned. These are Tripurāntakamūrti and Kirātār-junamūrti. The first was assumed by Siva when he killed the three demons called Tripura and reduced their three magic cities to ashes. During this campaign the Earth is said to have served Siva as a chariot, and the Sun and the Moon as its wheels. The four Vēdas were the four horses and the Upanishads were the guiding reins ; the mythic golden mountain Mēru was the bow, the ocean was the quiver and god Vishnu was the arrow. Images of Tripurāntaka are made with the right leg firmly placed on the pedestal and the left leg bent. The right forehand in the simha-karna posture holds the arrow and the left fore-arm, the bow. The other hands hold the tanka (or the
2 An image of Tripurāntaka in the thousand-pillared hall of the Madura temple shows an actual figure of Vishnu engraved on the arrow held by Siva. axe) and the deer respectively. The locks are arranged in the form of a jatāmakuta and the goddess Gaurī stands on the left side. The accompanying illustration from Chidambaram (fig. 90) answers to this description of Tripurāntaka. The alternating positions of the leg, the existence or non-existence of the demon Apasmāra underneath one of them and the fashion of holding the bow and the arrow, yield five other forms of Tripurāntaka, who may also be represented with eight or ten arms. Sometimes (when with ten arms), the god is seated in a chariot with his right knee touching the sudhā, the left leg which is bent at the knee being placed firmly in front of the right. In the chariot, at its front, is seated the four-faced Brahmā and below him is a white bull drawing the car. A sandal-wood carving published in the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, Vol. XV, No. 119, fig. 12, shows the actual fight between Siva and the demon called Tripura.
Kirātār-
JunamūrtiKirātārjunamūrti is that form of Siva in which he is supposed to have appeared before Arjuna, one of the heroes of the epic Mahābhārata, when the latter was doing penance to obtain from Siva a powerful weapon with which he could destroy his enemies. God Siva wished to try personally if his devotee Arjuna really deserved to wield the matchless weapon Pāsupata, whose presiding deity was himself. To this end Siva and Pārvatī assumed the forms of a hunter and a huntress and with their retinue of demons and hobgoblins attired for the chase, drove before them a wild boar, which rushed to attack Arjuna who was then performing his penance. Arjuna, the practised warrior, seized his bow and instantly shot the animal. Simultaneously also came another arrow from the psuedo-hunter Siva. Pierced by both the arrows, the animal died. The hunter cried out that the quarry was his and asked Arjuna how he dared to shoot at it. The royal hero of the Lunar race could not brook the insult from this wild hunter of the woods. A fierce fight between the two was the result. Arjuna was amazed to see that the hunter was more than his match. Arjuna's never failing arrows failed him now and he challenged the hunter to a hand-to-hand contest. Sore and beaten, Arjuna worshipped the clay linga, of the god Siva that he had before him, when, lo ! the flowers he threw on the linga fell on the person of the hunter. Arjuna struck the hunter at the head with his powerful bow called Gāndīva and drew blood. But the bow was mysteriously snatched away from him. In the end Arjuna was overcome by a gentle touch of the mighty god. Arjuna then knew him and begged pardon and the god gave him the desired weapon Pāsupata.
Fig. 90.–Tripurantakamurti; Chidambaram.
This story is the subject matter of the exquisite poem Kirātārjuniya of the Sanskrit poet Bhāravi. The Tanjore inscriptions refer to an image Kirātārjunadēva ; [51] and from the description given of it in a mutilated passage, it appears as if there was a reference there, to a linga or to some object connected with it. Images of Kirātārjunamūrti answering to the story described above are not very frequent. An illustration (fig. 91) which comes from Pushpagiri in the Cuddapah district represents evidently the last part of the drama, when Siva and Pārvati appeared before Arjuna and gave him the weapon. Siva holds in his back hands the axe and the trident. In his right fore-arm is the arrow Pāsupata, the left fore-arm resting freely on the waist. To the left of Siva stands the goddess Pārvati with two hands, holding a lotus flower in her right. In front of both, is Arjuna in the modest posture of receiving with both hands the divine gift offered him. A pigmy figure standing between Siva and Arjuna in the illustration may be one of the attendants of Siva. The Kāranāgama gives the same description but makes Siva wear both the arrow and the bow and hold the antelope instead of the trident. An illustration coming from Chidambaram (fig. 92) answers to this description. In it may also be seen the figure of Arjuna in a worshipping posture as described in the Kāranāgama. It may be noted that the historic "Arjuna's Penance" at Mahābalipuram is supposed to represent the Mahābhārata story related above. [52]
XXI
Chandēs-
Ānugraha-
Mūrti.Chandēsānugrahamūrti is a form of Siva which was assumed by him in order to confer blessings on his fervent devotee Chandēsa described in the sequel. [53] His figures are occasionally found depicted in some of the South-Indian temples. From Gangaikondasōlapuram in the Trichinopoly district comes a beautiful illustration (fig. 93) of the story.
Fig. 91.–Kiratarjunamurti; Pushpagiri.
Fig. 92.–Kiratarjunamurti; Chidambaram.
Fig. 93.–Chandesanugrahamurti; Gangaikondasolapuram.
Here Siva is seated in the sukhāsana or the comfortable posture on a raised pedestal, as in the case of Sōmāskanda figures, his left leg hanging down and resting on a foot-stool. The goddess Pārvatī too is seated to the left of Siva on the same pedestal, her right leg being bent at the knee and placed on the pedestal while the left is hanging down to rest on another foot-stool. Siva has four arms. In his two back hands he holds the axe and the deer and with the two front arms he is seen decorating with a flower garland the locks of his servant, the devoted Chandēsa. The latter sits on the ground at the foot of Siva, with bending knees and folded arms, and receives the divine favour with gratitude. The images are well ornamented. Above the group are seen flying gods and demi-gods who have evidently gathered round to see the kindness of Siva shown towards his devotee. According to the Mayamata Chandēsa has behind his folded arms the weapon parasu (axe). On the east gōpura of the Chidambaram temple is a figure of Chandēsānugrahamūrti in which Chandēsa is represented with the axe between his folded arms.
The size of the image of Chandēsa must, it is stated, be small so as to reach the arms of Siva and is to be bedecked with the ornaments of children. The Kāsyapa-Silpa states that between the god and the goddess may be placed the figure of Skanda, at the sculptor's option. " Next to Dakshināmūrti," it says, " the figure of Chandesānugraha is the most famous." A group of images under the name Chandēsvaraprasādadēva was set up in the Tanjore temple by king Rājarāja I, and consisted of (l) the god Chandēsvaraprasādadēva with four arms, (2) the demon Musalagan with two arms, (3) the goddess Umāparamēsvarī, (4) Mahādēva (the linga worshipped evidently by the boy Chandēsa), (5) the devotee with two arms, (6) his father also with two arms represented as having fallen down and lying on the ground and (7) Chandēsa receiving with his two arms the boon of a flower garland from Siva. [54] This description agrees with the story related in the Periyapurānam, a compilation of the thirteenth century A.D. The Kāranāgama, whose date is not known, was also apparently familiar with the story.
XXII
Sarabha-
MūrtiSome particularly fierce forms of Siva may now be described. First in fierceness comes the form of the fabulous Sarabha which is supposed to have been assumed by Siva in order to suppress the pride of Narasimha, the Man-lion incarnation of Vishnu. The Kāranāgama describes Sarabha as having eight legs, three eyes, long nails, two hands and a body glowing like fire. The image has a lion's face and two wings one of which is said to represent the fierce goddess Durgā and the other, Death. [55] The illustration here reproduced (fig. 94) shows Sarabha trampling on the Man-lion.
Pāsupata-
MūrtiPāsupatamūrti is another fierce form of Siva. This is evidently the form in which he is worshipped by the sect of Pāsupata Saivas, who, according to Dr. Bhandarkar, came into prominence about the second century B.C. [56] The Silpasāra describes Pāsupatamūrti as having ten arms and five faces. According to other Agamas the figure may have only four arms. It has a fierce face, knitted brows over its three eyes, and hair red like flames of fire, bristling erect on the head. The god holds in his right hand a trident pointing downwards and in the boon-giving palm of the left he also holds a skull (kapāla). Sometimes the handle of the trident is lightly held by both the lower arms, which do not then show the varada and the abhaya postures. In the back arms are seen the tanka and the sword. The protruding teeth and the sacred thread formed of a venomous serpent add to the fierceness of his appearance. For purposes of meditation, however, a milder form is adopted, in which, like Chandrasēkhara, the god is represented standing or seated with a smiling countenance, showing the trident and the abhaya in his two right arms and the rosary and the varada in the two left arms (fig. 95).
Raksho-
Ghnamūrti.Two other terrible forms of Siva are Aghōramūrti and Rakshōghnamūrti. The latter has braided hair and a body besmeared with ashes. In one hand he holds a trident with which he is piercing the god Yama, who calls away unto him the victims of all cruel diseases. In another hand is a skull from which issues a blazing fire. The axe and the kettle-drum are other weapons held by him. With his formidable projecting teeth, knitted eyebrows and frowning face he is represented as feasting on corpses in the company of bhūtas, prētas and pisāchas in the burning ground, which is his usual dwelling place. I have not, however, seen any actual representation of Aghora-
Mūrti.this image in South-Indian temples. Aghōramūrti has four faces and eight hands. In these he holds the kuthāra (axe), Vēdas, noose, goad, kettle-drum, rosary, trident
Fig. 94.–Sarabhamurti; Dharasuram.
Fig. 95.–Pasupatamurti; Chidambaram.
and the skull. He has terrible protruding teeth and a dark shining body (fig. 96). The Sivatattvaratnākara mentions a form of Aghōramūrti with thirty-two arms and the Pāncharātrāgama, another with twelve arms. The image wears a garland of skulls and treads on the head of Kālamunda, the vile god of Death.
BhairavaBhairava, born of the blood of Siva, is another god of this class. The Tantrasāra mentions eight forms of Bhairava which are fit for worship. His general form shows dishevelled matted hair, three eyes and a red-coloured body. His symbols are the trident, sword, noose and the kettle-drum. He is naked and is represented as being followed by all kinds of demons and spirits and riding on a dog (fig. 97). Hēmādri describes Bhairava as a pot-bellied god with round red eyes, terrible face, protruding teeth and wide nostrils. He wears a garland of skulls and ornaments of snakes, [57] thus frightening even his consort who stands by his side. The upper half of his body which is dark in colour is covered with the elephant's hide. He has many arms and holds all destructive weapons. The Silpasāra makes him seated on a jewelled throne under the celestial tree mandāra, closely embraced by the goddess. The same work Gōvinda-
Bhairava.
Samhāra.
Bhairava.mentions three other forms of Bhairava, viz., Panchavaktra-Bhairava, Gōvinda-Bhairava and Samhāra- Bhairava. The second of these has four arms and holds the conch, discus, drinking cup and the mace. He has three eyes and is young, serene and naked. On his side is the goddess Vaishnavī-Sakti and his vehicle is the bird Garuda. The third has five faces and ten arms and among his weapons are also the Vaishnavite conch and discus.
Kāla-
Bhairava.According to the Silpasāra Kāla-Bhairava wears a girdle of tiny bells on his waist and holds the sword, trident,
drum and the drinking cup in his hands. He has a fearsome face with protruding teeth, a garland of skulls and dishevelled hair. In the illustration from Durgi (fig. 98) the
dog which is his vehicle is seen biting a human head held by the left lower hand of the image. The goddess with her companion is standing to the right, evidently frightened at the serpent ornaments and the terrible form of Bhairava.
MahākālaMahākāla, still another fierce form of Siva, is quite like Bhairava, but holds a serpent in the place of the noose. In the work entitled Lalitopākhyāna he is described as accom- panied by Kālī, embracing her arid drinking with her " from
Fig. 96.–Agohramurti; Pattisvaram.
Fig. 97.–Bhairava; Pattisvaram.
Fig. 98.–Kala-Bhairava; Durgi..
the cup which is the mundane egg, the wine which is the essence of creation." His faces (evidently five) are terrible to look at, like those of death, and threaten to swallow the universe.
Kālāgni-
Rudra.Kālāgni-Rudra " the terrible or fiery Rudra " described in the Kāsyapa-Silpa, closely resembles Bhairava and is perhaps only another form of him. [58] He holds the weapons sword and shield, the arrow and the bow and wears a red cloth. The illustration from Durgi (fig. 99) is very likely one of Kālāgni-Rudra.
XXIII
Vīrabhadra.Vīrabhadra is one of the many Saiva demi-gods (ganas)- [59] He is said to have sprung from a lock of Siva's hair when, as already stated, Siva heard of the suicide of his wife Satī in her father's sacrificial fire and flew into a rage. From the fire of his anger came into existence this terrible form, as of Death manifest, who destroyed the sacrificial ceremonies of Daksha and slew Daksha himself. The Pāncharātrāgama describes Vīrabhadra as black in colour, having three eyes and holding in his four arms a sword, arrow, bow and club. He wears a garland of skulls and has sandals on his feet. A yellow garment is tied round his loins. [60] The Silparatna describes him as having eight hands and riding on vētāla (a demon) surrounded by his ganas (followers). From the Brihadīsvara temple at Tanjore comes a sculptured panel (fig. 100) in which a woman, perhaps the wife of Daksha, is seen flying in alarm with upraised hands at seeing her husband decapitated by Vīrabhadra before her very eyes and the severed head thrown into the sacrificial fire-pit. One of the attendant priests with a ladle in his hand is also represented in the act of running away from the scene. A fine figure of Vīrabhadra with the bow and arrow, sword and shield, comes from Mudigondam in the Coimbatore district (fig. lOl). The god is represented standing on a padmapitha in front. of a prabhā-mandala, " an arch of light ". At the edge of the pedestal on the right side is shown Daksha who was, however, revived by Siva with the head of a sheep substituted for the one that was burnt in the sacrificial fire.
Fig. 99.–Kalagni-Rudra (?); Durgi.
Fig. 100.–Virabhadra throwing the head of Daksha into the file; Tanjore.
Fig. 101.–Virabhadra; Mudigondam.
The figure of Daksha is of comparatively small stature, meant evidently to indicate by contrast, the huge form of Vīrabhadra.
The Silpasangraha mentions three varieties of Vīrabhadra (viz. sāttvic, tāmasic and rājasic) with two, four or eight arms.[61] All are dark in colour and fierce looking. Seated figures of Vīrabhadra are called Yōga-Vīra, his standing figures, Bhōga-Vīra and those in a walking posture, Vīra-Vīra. In the first, Vīrabhadra holds a sword and shield and is seated with one leg folded on the pedestal and the other hanging down. In the second posture he exhibits the bow and arrow, sword and kataka. On the leg is worn the anklet of heroes. The head is adorned with a crown, in the middle of which is represented a linga. A garland of skulls decorates the neck. On the right side is the image of Daksha with folded arms. In the Vīra-Vīra figures, Vīrabhadra holds the trident, sword, arrow and the deer on the right side and the skull, shield, bow and the goad on the left. It may be noted that, while images of Vīrabhadra and independent temples erected for him are very common in the Telugu and Canarese districts, temples in the Tamil districts rarely contain his image, and shrines dedicated to him are still rarer. There is a Vīrabhadra temple at Madura,
XXIV
Kshētrapāla
Images of Kshētrapāla often met with in the temples of Southern India are divided into three classes, according to the predominating qualities sattva, rajas and tamas. Those belonging to the first class have two or four hands; the second six and the third eight.[62] All the figures, irrespective of the class to which they belong, are made to stand with level feet (samapāda). The general description of them is that they have three eyes which are round and protruding, red hair pointing upwards, serpent jewels, a girdle of bells round the waist and a necklace of skulls. They are naked and inspire awe with their fierce fangs (fig. 102). Kshētrapāla occupies an important place among the subsidiary deities in Siva temples. He is the chief guardian of the temple just as Chandēsa (described below) is its superintendent and 
Fig. 102. Kshētrapāla; Tiruvarangulam.
manager. Kshētrapāla is worshipped first in every Siva temple, before commencing the regular service for the day. The Prayōgasāra says: "Whoever performs any ceremony without first worshipping Kshētrapāla, the fruit of that ceremony is without doubt destroyed by Kshētrapāla." His naked form and the name Mahā-Bhairava by which he is addressed during the Sribali ceremony suggests that Kshētrapāla in his essence must be allied to Bhairava.[63]
All these awe-inspiring forms of the Saiva cult, including others which are mentioned in the Āgamas, but not often met with in South-Indian temples, received special worship from the adherents of the early Saiva sub-sects known as Pāsupatas, Kālāmukhas and Kāpālikas, as well as from the Lingāyatas of later origin.[64]
XXV
Among the attendant ganas of Siva who, like the gods just described, are identified with one or another aspect of Siva himself, may be Chandēsa.mentioned Chandēsa, Bhringīsa and Nandīsa. The first is counted as the foremost of the servants of Siva and is hence called in Tamil inscriptions and the Periyapurānam, Ādidāsa-Chandēsa. [65] The Kāsyapa-Silpa tells us that he is made up of the sterner side of Siva's nature and appears in each millennium (yuga) with different names and symbols. In the Krita-yuga he receives the name Prachanda, is of angry appearance, rides on an elephant and has the jatāmakuta and sixteen arms. In Trētā-yuga he is seen smiling, has eight arms and dishevelled braids of hair, and goes by the name Chanda. In the third or Dvāpara-yuga he has four hands, the lion vehicle, Jatāmandala, protruding teeth and a fearful face. His weapons then are the tanka, trident, noose and the hook. In the Kali-yuga he has a peaceful appearance and the bull vehicle, has his locks made up in the
1 1 form of either a jatāmakuta, jatāmandala or kēsabandha and
stands with level feet in the ābhanga or the sama-bhanga posture. He may also be found seated with the right leg hanging down from the seat and the left leg bent crosswise so as to rest upon the seat. He holds the tanka (or, axe) in the right hand and shows the boon-giving posture in his left (fig. I03). [66] Sometimes both the hands are seen folded over the breast in a worshipping posture with the weapon tanka (or, sometimes, a flower garland) held between them. In this case he receives the name Ādi-Chandēsa. A story related in the Tamil Periyapurānam about Chandēsa makes him a fervent devotee of Siva, who in his height of devotion, cut off the legs of his own father, because he wantonly spilt the milk-pots which Chandēsa had secured as loving offerings to Siva. Sankarāchārya, who lived perhaps in the early part of the eighth century A.D., refers to this Saiva devotee Chandēsa as pitridrōhin, " the sinner against (his) father," evidently with reference to the story related in the Periyapurānam. The form of Siva known as Chandēsānugrahamūrti, described above, is entirely based on this anecdote.
NandīsaNandi, Nandīsa or Nandikēsvara, now represented by the recumbent bull placed in front of the chief shrine in a Siva temple, is described by Hēmādri to be one of the attendant demi-gods of Siva. He is stated to have three eyes and four arms and to wear a tiger's skin. In two of his hands he holds the trident and the bhindivāla " a short javelin." The third hand is raised up over the head and the last shows a stretched finger (tarjani), his eyes being watchful and fixed towards people coming from a distance into the Siva temple. The Varāha-Purāna says that, though originally an ascetic, Nandi by his austerities and devotion to Siva was blessed with a form similar to that of Siva himself and was placed at the head of the attendant ganas of Siva. A metallic image (fig. 104) from Valuvūr (Tanjore district) represents him in this metamorphosed form. He has four arms of which the two back ones hold the tanka and the deer and the two front are joined together palm to palm in a worshipping posture. By the side of Nandīsvara stands also his wife with two arms.[67]
Fig. 103. Chandesa; Tiruvottiyur.
Fig. 104. Nandisa and his consort (metal); Valuvur.
It must be noted that Nandīsa is a favourite deity of the Saiva puritans, the so-called Lingāyatas or Vīra-Saivas.
BhringīsaBhringi, Bhringiriti or Bhringīsa is similarly a fervent devotee of Siva. So exclusive was he in his devotion that he is said to have ignored the goddess who was part and parcel of Siva. His sole business in life, to which he had pledged himself, was ever to circumambulate the linga of Siva and no one else. To test his faith the god assumed the hermaphrodite form of Ardhanāri in which the goddess, as already described, is not separated from the god. Bhringi was not baffled ; but assuming the form of a bee (bhringa) he bored into the united body and continued still to go round and round the Siva half of the hermaphrodite. The goddess Pārvatī was enraged and cursed him to become emaciated day after day. Bhringi, accordingly, grew very thin and was unable to support himself. With the grace of Siva he secured a third leg which supported him. Thus Bhringi is represented in pictures with three legs (fig. I05). [68] An image of Bhringīsa with three arms and three legs is stated to have been set up in the temple at Tanjore by a subordinate of Rājarāja I in the eleventh century A.D.
JvaradēvaJvaradēva of Saiva mythology, who is supposed to have been the destroyer of the demon Bhasmāsura, is described in the Agamas as having three legs, three heads, six arms, nine eyes, and a dejected appearance. An image from Bhavāni in the Coimbatore district (fig. 106) answers to this description of Jvaradēva.
XXVI
Ganapati
Ganesa or
VināyakaGanapati, Ganesa or Vinayaka, the popular " belly god,"
is, as his name indicates, the chief of the Saiva ganas. He is
said to be the eldest son of Siva and Pārvatī, to have three eyes, an elephant's head <ref>One of the popular stories explaining how Ganapati came to have the elephant's head is as follows : Once upon a time when Pārvati went to bathe, she made a figure of the turmeric which had been smeared over her body, gave it life and limbs and appointed it to keep watch at the door. Siva came to see Pārvati but was stopped at the door by the newly created guard. Siva in anger cut off the head of the figure. The goddess entreated him to revive her child. He agreed and said that the head of any living body sleeping with the head placed northward might be severed at once and placed on the trunk of the turmeric figure. Afl elephant was found sleeping in the way described. Its head was accordingly cut
Fig. 105. Bhringi; Srlsailam.
Fig. 106. Jvaradeva; Bhavani.
two back hands he holds the hook and the noose and in the front arms an elephant's tusk and the wood-apple. Instead of the two last we may sometimes find the boon-conferring posture and the water-pot. According to the Kasyapa-Silpa the noose may alternate with the rosary or a serpent. The illustration from Lēpākshi (fig. 107) shows the left lower hand of Ganēsa resting on his thigh. His elephant trunk is curved out in the act of picking up the wood-apple or, sometimes, the pudding. His pot-belly is girded round by a serpent and the sacred thread, which is also a serpent, hangs across the body from over his left shoulder. In the seated posture Ganēsa is represented with one leg hanging from the pedestal and placed on a foot-stool and the other resting on the pedestal. The right tusk of the god is broken and must in no case be shown complete. [69] He rides on a rat or bandicoot. His image may be made standing (fig. 108), seated (fig. 109) or dancing (fig. 110).[70] In the first position the general bend of the body known as ābhanga or samabhanga may optionally be adopted. While seated, the body is to be slightly bent to the left. Over his head Ganēsa wears the jewelled crown (kiritamakuta) and his hands and legs are fully ornamented.
Ganapati is a very important deity in the Hindu Pantheon. [71] Supposed to be the lord of obstacles (Vighnēsvara) he is worshipped by all classes of Hindus, other than Srī-Vaishnavas, at the commencement of every religious ceremony, whether auspicious or inauspicious. A sect of Brahmanas called Gānāpatyas, found mostly on the West Coast, worship him as the highest of the gods. As in the case of Vishnu and Siva he is
off and placed on the trunk. The figure came back to life and Siva accepting that as his first-born child, blessed him and made him the leader (pati) of the Saiva hosts (ganas). People still believe that it is not right to sleep with one's head placed northward. The Brahmavaivarta-Purāna gives a different account and makes Vishnu responsible for the change in Ganapati's head.</ref> and ears and four arms. In the
Fig. 107. Ganapati standing; Lepakshi.
Fig. 108. Ganapati standing; Pattisvaram.
Fig. 109. Ganapati seated; Siyamangalam.
Fig. 110. Ganapati dancing; Gangaikondasolapuram.
also called by a thousand names. Mr. Havell explains Ganapati to be the manas, or worldly wisdom, personified. Ganapati in Hindu mythology is recognized as an unmarried god a brahmachārin. But from the sequel it will appear that some forms of Ganapati have their accompanying goddesses, some times, recognized as Ashta-Siddhis (the eight presiding deities of success or achievement).
Thirty-two forms of Ganapati [72] are mentioned in the Mudgala-Purāna. The Maha-GanapatiSilpasāra also refers to some of these forms. Mahā-Ganapati is stated in the Mudgala-Purāna to be an elephant-faced god, three-eyed, wearing the crescent of the moon as his head-ornament, and red in colour. He is lovingly embraced by his wife who, seated on his lap, holds a lotus in her hand. The following weapons and symbols are mentioned : the bijapūra, club, sugarcane-bow, a brilliant discus, conch, noose, lotus, ear of paddy, the broken tusk and the ruby-pot. This list indicates that the god must have ten hands. [73] The illustration (fig. III) from Madura shows Mahā-Ganapati riding on a rat and having on his lap the seated figure of a goddess. He has ten arms but the weapons held in them are not quite distinct. In the uppermost hand on the right side, however, is seen the discus. In the Visvanātha temple at Tenkāsi (Tinnevelly district) we Lakshmī
Ganapati
Hēramba-
Ganapatihave a similar image seated on a pedestal without the usual rat vehicle, the elephant trunk being turned towards the left side. Here again only the discus and the lotus held in two of the ten arms are clear. Mahā-Ganapati with different weapons and two goddesses receives the name Lakshmī-Ganapati. A fine bronze image of Hēramba-Ganapati, also described in the Mudgala-Purāna comes from Negapatam (fig. 1 1 2). This figure has five elephant faces, the fifth of which, in the illustration, is represented at the top. [74] Of his ten arms the two lowest show the protecting and the boon-giving postures. The others hold the noose, the tusk, the rosary, hook, axe, pestle, pudding and the fruit. He rides on a lion, but no goddess is found, as in the two varieties just mentioned. From Tiruvanaikkaval (i.e., Jambukesvaram)
Fig. 111. Mahā-Ganapati; Madura.
Fig. 112. Heramba-Ganapati (metal); Negapatam.
Pancha-
Mukha
Vināyakain the Trichinopoly district, comes a stone figure of Pancha-mukha-Vināyaka which answers to the description of Hēramba-Ganapati without the lion vehicle. There are other forms known as Ūrdhva-Ganapati, Uchchhishta-Ganapati and Vara-Ganapati, [75] which are perhaps the inventions of the followers of that mysterious and often indecent cult of Sāktas, in which the female energy of creation always plays a very prominent part. Sakti-Ganapati and Uddanda-Ganapati Bīja-
Ganapati
or Vijaya-
Ganapatiare represented as embracing a goddess. Bīja-Ganapati mentioned in the Silparatna has four arms, is fond of the citron and is adorned with shining ornaments. Perhaps he is the same as Vijaya-Ganapati of the Mudgala-Purāna. It may be noted that in the Brihadīsvara temple at Tanjore, established by the Chōla king Rājarāja I about the beginning of the eleventh century A.D., different forms of dancing and seated Ganapatis were installed. These bore the names Ālayattu-Pillaiyār and Parivārālayattu-Pillaiyār.[76]
Ganapati, the Tamil Pillaiyār, is a very popular god. He is the god of wealth, the remover of all obstacles, the bestower of success, the fulfiller of desire. He is gentle, calm and friendly and withal possessed of a certain wise craft- A famous story relates how Vyāsa found no one capable of writing down his voluminous Mahābhārata to his dictation and was referred to Ganapati. Ganapati agreed, but on the understanding that Vyāsa never stopped for a moment in the midst. Vyāsa on his part stipulated that Ganapati should take down naught of which he did not understand the meaning. So whenever Vyāsa felt that he had to pause in the middle of his composition he gave out a more than ordinarily tough verse; and while the crafty god was worrying over its meaning managed to be ahead of the god's writing. Temples of Ganapati are quite common in Southern India, though there are none which may be considered particularly famous, except the one of Ucchi-Pillaiyār on the rock at Trichinopoly. In virtue of his being the lord of spirits (ganas) which cause obstacles to men, Ganapati is also considered to be the guardian deity of a village and is, as such, installed in one of the four quarters of almost every village.
XXVII
Skanda or
Kumara.Skanda or Kumāra is another of Siva's sons known to Hindu mythology. He is represented with six faces (Shadānana) and as riding on a peacock. Being supposed to have been brought up by the six mothers, the Krittikas (Pleiades), he is known as Shānmātura and Kārttikēya. The Purānas state that he was born of the fiery energy of Siva in a forest of grass (sara-vana), became the commander of the army of the gods in their battle against the giant Tāraka, and that he rent asunder by his arrows the mountain Krauncha. The birth of Skanda-Kumāra is described at great length by the famous poet Kālidāsa in his well-known work Kumārasambhava. Skanda is also known by the name Subrahmanya in the Tantras. In some unexplained way there exists an intimate connexion between the worship of Subrahmanya and of the serpent. The common name Subba or Subbarāya found among the Telugu, Canarese and Tamil people is explained to be both a contraction of Subrahmanya and a synonym for serpent. The sixth day of a lunar month (shashthi) is held as peculiarly sacred to Subrahmanya, as to the serpent god. His riding on a peacock, his marriage with the forest maid Valliyamman, and the fact that his most famous temples are on hill tops, show that he is connected with the ancient tree and-serpent-worship and the sylvan deities. The Silpasāra describes him under name Subbarāya as having six faces, three eyes, the peacock vehicle and the weapons sakti, thunderbolt, sword, etc. The Silpasangraha describes him as having two arms, the sacred thread, a tuft, girdle, kaupina and staff like the unmarried students of the Vēdas (brahmacharin). It may be noted that the day shashthi, sacred to serpent worship in Southern India, is celebrated by feeding brahmachārins and presenting cloths to them.
The Kāsyapa-Silpa sets down that the image of Skanda may be made of two, four, six or twelve hands and may have either six faces or only one. The symbols generally are the sakti, arrow, sword, discus, noose, a bunch of peacock's feathers, shield, bow, plough, rosary and the postures abhaya and varada. When the image has two hands, the left hand holds a cock (kukkuta) and the right hand a sakti (the Tamil vēl) [77] Hēmādri speaks of him as wearing a red cloth and riding on a peacock. The illustration from Tiruvottiyūr (fig. 113) shows only four hands.
Shadānana-
Subrah-
Manya.The most common variety however is the six-faced Shadānana-Subrahmanya, showing in his twelve hands the symbols and weapons, sakti, arrow, sword, discus, noose and abhaya on the right and a kukktuta (cock), bow, shield, conch, plough and varada on the left. He rides on the peacock vehicle and may have on either side of him the attendants Jaya and Vijaya (fig. 114), or perhaps the goddesses Vailī and Dēvayānā or Dēvasēnā, "the army of gods." A fine stone figure (fig. 115) of Kumāra on the peacock vehicle, with a single face and four arms and attended by the goddesses Vailī
and Dēvayānā, comes from Samayapuram in the Trichinopoly district. A sketch from Chidambaram (fig. 116) shows Skanda with three visible faces, ten arms and the peacock vehicle fighting with giants evidently Tāraka and his retinue. In four of his right hands he holds the weapons, sword, axe, arrow and club while the fifth is in the posture of pulling the bow
string (missing in the illustration). The uppermost of his left arms shows the vismaya posture, and the four others hold the shield, bow, noose and bell. Subrahmanya may also be shown with one face and ten hands and riding on the peacock vehicle.
The worship of Skanda in India has been very ancient. Dr. Bhandarkar in his work Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc., has put forth literary and inscriptional evidence to prove that Skanda was worshipped in the time of Patanjali and in the early centuries of the Christian era. Sūdraka, the author of the drama Mrichchhakatikā, introducing a thief as one of the characters in his drama, makes him, before starting on his profession, invoke the blessings of Skanda. The artisans of the present day also resort to Skanda as one of the chief deities who preside over their craft. In the south the worship of Skanda-Kumāra under the name Velāyudha, Muruga, etc., is most popular. All classes are equally devoted to him, the
non-Brahmans being particularly so. It may be noted that the shrines sacred to Skanda are always situated on hills, as at Tiruttani, Palnis, Tirupparangunram, Kunnakudi or on the seashore as at Tiruchchendūr, etc. An ancient Tamil poem called Tirumurugārruppadai probably written in the early eighth century A.D. is devoted exclusively to describing the shrines of Subrahmanya in Southern India. The god has been included in Aryan theogony from very early ages. Like most Saiva gods he may be the outcome of the fusion of the ancient Aryan and Dravidian cults and this may 
Fig. 113.—Skanda; Tiruvottiyūr.
Fig. 114.—Skanda (Shadānana): Madura.
Fig. 115.—Skanda and his consorts; Samayapuram.
Fig. 116.—Skanda fighting with giants; Chidambaram.
deity and is enshrined in almost every Siva temple of importance in Southern India. He is par excellence the god of youth, of energy and virility.
- ↑ E.g. Tirumala and Kadalmallai.
- ↑ In Sivarahasya, a chapter of Saura-samhitā, it is stated that the linga has a fivefold significance and denotes the primeval energy of the Creator. At the end of the creation all gods find their resting place in the linga, -Brahmā being absorbed into the right, Janārdana (Vishnu) into the left and Gāyatri into the heart.
- ↑ Ideals of Indian Art, p. 87.
- ↑ See Epigraphia Indie a, Vol. V, p. 3.
- ↑ The Silparatna describes this to be a long or short shaft of shattered appearance, flat like a board and many cornered with crooked horns. Bāna is another kind of linga which is shaped by nature and not by the chisel.
- ↑ 5 According to the Mayamata all kinds of pedestals, whatever may be their pattern, must have a duct on tLeir left side to carry off the surface water. These ducts are to be well decorated.
- ↑ The sirōvartana or the shaping of the top of the linga which, according to the Silparatna, may be cucumber-like, umbrella-like, crescent-like, egg-like or bubble-like, distinguishes the four different lingas worshipped by the four castes. The same work sets down that images may also be carved on the linga. Superior lingas are stated to vary from 7 to 9 cubits in height. Fixed lingas are worshipped in temples and movable lingas in houses.
- ↑ Sixteen of these are mentioned in the Silpasāra. They are: – Sukhāsana, Vaivāhika, Umāsahita (according to the Mayamata Umāskanda), Vrishārūdha, Tripurāntaka or Purāri, Natarāja, Chandrasēkhara, Ardhanāri, Harihara, Chandēsvara (Mayamata gives Chandēsānugraha), Kāmāri, Kālanāsa, Dakshināmūrti, Bhikshātana, Sadāsiva (Mayamata gives Mukhalinga) and Lingōdbhava. The Kārānāgama mentions twenty-five.
- ↑ Hemādri describes Rudra as riding on a bull and having five faces all of which are mild-looking, except the one on the right side of the central face. He has ten arms and wears garlands of skulls.
- ↑ See below, p. 137 f., under Srīkantha.
- ↑ Jaina images called Chaturmukha or Chaumnkhi are often made of a single stone. The four identical images on the four sides are surmounted by a series of umbrellas common to all, which appear like the spire of a temple (see Epigraphia Indica, Vol. X, p. 115). The Buddhists also seem to have possessed such figures ; see Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayūrabhanja p. 41.
- ↑ A linga placed at the entrance into an old Siva temple at Raichūr (Hyderabad State) shows a combination of five lingas, four on the sides and one at the top.
- ↑ Rai Bahadur V. Venkayya describes him s a hideous malignant dwarf, who sprang from the sacrificial fire of the rishis of the Dārukāvana forest and was subdued by Siva by being pressed under the tip of his foot (S.I.I. Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33, footnote). Perhaps he is the personification of the disease epilepsy wherein the victim is enveloped in complete mental darkness.
- ↑ The Silparatna remarks that the aureola of Natarājā represents the ravi mandala or ' the sun's disc." This perhaps accounts for the flaming rays proceeding from the aureola.
- ↑ The Kāranāgama has the following about Sabhāpati :― " On the top of the Kailāsa mountain, in front of the goddess Gauri (Pārvati) who is seated on a jewelled throne, Siva with the crescent on his head dances in the evenings. All the dēvas attend the dance ; Brahmā plays on cymbals ; Hari (Vishnu), on a pataha ; Bhāratī (Sarasvatī), on the lute ; the Sun and Moon, on flutes; Tumbura and Nārada supply vocal music; and Nandi and Kumāra (Skanda) beat drums." The Mayamata also mentions other gods and goddesses in the congregation, such as Vighnēsa (Vināyaka), Kāli and the Seven Mothers. It adds that Siva then performs the dance called Bhujangalrāsita with the serpent Karkōtaka on him ; see Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate XLlll, fig. 5.
- ↑ The description of the image of Ādavallān (i.e., "the expert dancer,"Natarāja) given in the Tanjore Inscriptions, mentions " four arms, nine braids of hair (jatā), the goddess Gangā-bhattārakī on the braided hair and seven flower garlands. The goddess Umāparamēsvarī who formed a part of the group was standing on a separate pedestal." Another image of a similar description in the same temple was Tanjai-Alagar with whom was connected also the figure of a Ganapati. Of the sages Patanjali and Vyāghrapāda who usually accompany the dancing image of Natarāja, the Tanjore Inscriptions describe the former as a solid image which measured " three-quarters and one-eighth (of a mulam) in height from the tail to the hoods (phana). It had five hoods ; one face in the midst of these hoods, one crown (makuta), two divine arms, above the navel, a human body, and below the navel three coils" ; (S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction,
- ↑ According to the Silpasangraha and the Mayamata, the dance is performed under the vata or the banyan tree.
- ↑ This same dance is described in the Mayamata as Bhujangalalita in which by quick changes in the position of the legs, the fire in the hand is blown into a blaze, and the braided locks are spread out into five, seven or nine. On the left side stands Vishnu in place of Gaurī, and on the right Nandi.
- ↑ In the illustrations the weapons and symbols are seen just as they are mentioned in the Āgamas. The position of the legs in the one, and the abhaya and the gaja-hasta poses in the other, are, however, reversed.
- ↑ The Silparatna says that Skanda stands on the same side as Gaurī holding her by the hand, and shows fear, love and wonder in his face.
- ↑ The devotion of Rājarāja I to the god at Chidambaram and the rich presents which he must have made to the temple there, evidently earned for him the titles Srī-Rājarāja and Sivapādasēkhara ; Rai Bahadur Venkayya thinks that Rājarāja built at Tanjore the big temple of Rājarājēsvara (i.e., Brihadīsvara) in order to commemorate the conferring of these titles. He consecrated therein the god Siva and called him Ādavallān, i.e., the expert dancer, after the famous Natarāja of Chidambaram.
- ↑ It is from this gōpura that the best illustrations are secured. The gōpura is very rich in sculptures and has various forms of Siva and his attendant gods. In this gōpura are also found illustrations of the 108 postures in dancing, mentioned in the Bhāratiya-Nātyasāstra (vide Madras Epigraphical Report for 1913-14, Plates I to IV). They are appropriately meant to be connected with Natarājā the king of dancers.
- ↑ Above, p. 76, footnote I.
- ↑ Described above, p. 62.
- ↑ This incident has given rise to the recognition of another sportive form of Siva called Kāmāri or Kāmadahanamūrti. The scene is depicted on one of the pillars of an unfinished mandapa near the tank in the Ēkāmrēsvara temple at Conjeeveratn. According to the Kāranāgama, Kāmadahanamūrti has four arms in which are seen the abhaya, varada, a deer and the tanka. He is seated on a lotus pedestal and is fierce in appearance.
- ↑ Havell, Ideals of Indian Art, p. 83f".
- ↑ The Silpasangraha mentions a serpent playing by the side of Apasmāra.
- ↑ The description of Dakshināmūrti given in the Tanjore inscriptions is very interesting and nstructive. They say that the mountain on which the god is seated " had two peaks on which there were two Kinnaras and two Kinnarīs. Under the foot of the god was Musalagan. On the mountain vere four rishis, a snake, two Karmaprāvritas (i.e., devotees of Siva (?) mentioned in Rāmāyana, who had ear-lobes with holes big enough to allow their hands to be passed through in the act of worshipping) and a tiger. A banyan tree was also on the mountain and had nine main branches and forty-two minor ones. A wallet was suspended from the tree and a bunch of peacock's feathers was one of the accompaniments of the god " ; S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33.
- ↑ The swan and the boar are in some pictures found to be half-man and half animal.
- ↑ On the east main gōpura of the Chidambaram temple is an image of Lingōdbhava surrounded by flames of fire.
- ↑ The Kāranāgama mentions a sportive form of Siva cutting off one of the heads of Brahmā. The image is stated to have four arms holding the thunder bolt and the axe in the right hand and the trident and Brahmā's skull in the left.
- ↑ Accordingly, we sometimes find Vishnu occupying the central place. On p. 73 above, footnote I, it was noted that the goddess Gāyatri was absorbed into the centre of the linga while Brahmā and Vishnu entered the sides of it.
- ↑ See Nagendra Natha Vasu's Mayūrabhanja, Introduction, p, xxxj.
- ↑ The Mahābhārata refers to a similar story and states that a rishi called Mahōdara got himself relieved of the skull of a giant that had stuck to his knee, by bathing in the sacred tank called Kapālamōchana-tīrtha.
- ↑ This image is published in the Archaeological Survey Report, Madras, for 1911-12, Plate I, fig. 2, Imt without the two accompanying figures of the deer and the demon.
- ↑ The Mayamata says that this form of Siva may have four, six or eight arms.
- ↑ The braided hair (jatā) of Bhikshātana, on the other hand , is generally found in illustrations, arranged in a circle. Jatāmakuta is the arrangement of the jatas in the form of a makuta or crown. The former is, perhaps, what is known in the Silpa- works as jatāmandala.
- ↑ The actual position of the hand as described in the Āgamas, however, is simha-karna or "lion's ear" with the fingers slightly closing on the palmside.
- ↑ Siva is supposed to have three Saktis attached to him, viz., Yōga-Sakti, Bhōga-Sakti and Vira-Sakti ; see below, p. 185, footnote I.
- ↑ S.I.I., Vol. II, Introduction, p. 33, footnote i
- ↑ The Silparatna and the Kāsyapa-Silpa state that more often Gauri is seen on the right side of the god.
- ↑ The illustrations given show two and four hands respectively for Siva, who standing with his legs crossed and leaning against the back of the bull, has the kūrpara of his right hand placed on the head of the bull. A fine image from Ceylon figured as No. 29 in Part II of Visvakarma is evidently one of Vrishārūdha as described in the Mayamata. The trident in the right lower hand, the bull and the goddess are missing.
- ↑ The great Chōla king Rājarāja I is represented in the Tanjore inscriptions to have been devoted particularly to this form of Siva. The figures of the king and of Chandrasēkhara receiving worship from him, were set up by the manager of the temple before the close of the 29th year of that king, i.e., before A. D. 1013-14.
- ↑ The popular story connected with the origin of this form is given below (p. 165), under Bhringlsa.
- ↑ The Silparatna defines this as a pose of hand in which the second finger (tarjani) is kept straight while the others are bent inwards. It is also adopted when images are made to hold the goad or other similar weapons.
- ↑ The Silpasangraha says that the right lower arm of Siva may be in the posture of giving boons. The illustrations, however, show it holding the face of the goddess Gauri.
- ↑ Plate XLIII, fig. I, and Plate XXVI, fig. I.
- ↑ See Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate XXIV.
- ↑ In place of the varada some figures show the sūchi and in place of the vismaya, the hand holding the deer. According to the Silpasangraha the symbols may be the trident and the kettle-drum in the right hands and the boon-giving posture and the axe in the left.
- ↑ The Kāsyapa-Silpa speaking of Srīkantha says that he holds the trident and the kettle-drum.
- ↑ Dr. Ananda K. Coomaraswami publishes an image of Siva from Tanjore in his Art Jouinal Visvakarma (Fart II, No. 28). In this the positions of the four hands indicate the nature of the weapons that must have been held by them. Although the image is called Gangādhara by Dr. Coomaraswami, the poses of the fingers suggest that the image must be one of Kirātārjuna, possibly the very idol mentioned in the Tanjore inscriptions, since its two fore-arms are so adjusted as to receive into them the bow and the arrow. The upper arms in this case must have held the axe and the deer. Mr. R. D. Banerji describes in the Director-General's Archeological Survey Report for 1911-12, pp. 161 ff., certain sculptures from Chandimau which relate to this story of Arjuna's fight with Siva. These are attributed by Mr. Banerji to the Gupta period.
- ↑ Havell's Ideals of Indian Art, pp. 147 to 151.
- ↑ Sec p. 161, below
- ↑ South-Indian Inscriptions, Vol. II, Introduction, p. 39. IO-A
- ↑ Madras Archieological Survey Report for 1911-12, Plate IX, Fig. I.
- ↑ Vaishanavism, Sivism, etc., p. 116 f.
- ↑ Figures of Bhairava with the dog vehicle and the five-hooded serpent overhead, are reported to exist in some of the ancient temples of the Bellary district.
- ↑ The Rudrayāmala-Tantra includes the name Kālāgni-Rudra among the 64 varieties of Bhairava.
- ↑ Kāsikhanda. In the lexicon Amarakōsa Siva himself is called the destroyer of the sacrifice (Kratudhvamsin).
- ↑ The Kāranāgama adds that he has Bhadrakāli by his side and is fierce, Daksha with the sheep's head, two eyes and two arms, stands on the right side of Vīrabhadra.
- ↑ Dr. Burgess's Elura Cave Temples, Plate XXII, Fig. 2, is a representation of Vīrabhadra with eight hands. The plate wrongly calls the figure Bhairava.
- ↑ One image of Kshētrapāla with eight arms and another of Bhairava, were set up in the Tanjore temple at the beginning of the eleventh century A.D. in connexion with the group of figures illustrating the story of the Saiva saint Siruttonda-Nāyanār; see below, p. 259, footnote 2. In the Panchanadēsvara temple at Tiruvādi near Tanjore is an image of Kshētrapāla, called Ālkondār, with eight hands, to which people attach much importance.
- ↑ Mayūrabhanja, (p. xxxiv, fig. 13), gives a description of Kshētrapāla calling him Mahākāla and Bhairava. The Silpasāra in describing Vatuka-Bhairava, calls him also Kshētrapāla.
- ↑ In the famous temple on the Srīsailam Hill (Kurnool district) where the influence of the Lingāyata sect was once very great, is a pavilion adjoining the Nandi-mandapa. An inscription of the fourteenth century A.D. describes it as the place where the votaries, evidently of the Vīrabhadra form of Siva, offered up their heads in order to propitiate the furious god ; Madras Epigraphical Report for 1914-15, p. 92, paragraph 15.
- ↑ In Epigraphic records the documentary transactions of a Siva temple are stated to be conducted in the name of Chandēsa, the supposed manager of the temple. Even now, visitors to a Siva shrine have to report themselves before Chandēsa prior to leaving the temple premises and clap their hands as if to show that they are not carrying with them any portion of the temple property.
- ↑ This last is the form of Chandēsa usually found in Siva temples. In the illustration, however, the left hand rests on the thigh and the position of the legs is reversed.
- ↑ A verse in praise of Nandi describes him as the husband of Suyasā. He stands at the entrance into Siva temples with a knife or golden cane held in his hands so as to touch the kūrpara of his right arm. In one of the mandapas of the Ēkāmrēsvara temple at Conjeeveram, Nandi is represented in the same posture as Garuda, carrying in his out-stretched fore-arms the feet of Siva and Pārvatī.
- ↑ The Vāmana-Purāna states that Bhringi was the name conferred by Siva on the demon Andhaka after the latter had proved himself to be a staunch devotee of Siva. Bhringi is represented with an emaciated body holding the staff in one hand and the rosary in the other. His eyes are ever directed towards Siva.
- ↑ In the Sukranitisāra it is stated that his left (vāma) tusk is broken, that his vehicle may be any animal which he chooses and that his trunk holds a lotus.
- ↑ The dancing figure of Ganēsa from Gangaikondasōlapuram has its upper left hand lifted up instead of showing the noose or the rosary.
- ↑ Babu Nagendra Natha Vasu in his Mayurabhanja states that Vināyaka is worshipped even by the Buddhists, the Japanese calling him Binayakia. He refers to a temple of Ganēsa in Nepal which is supposed to have been built by a daughter of the Maurya king Asōka in the third century B.C. Dr. Bhandarkar ( Vaishnavism, Saivism, etc., p. 147 f.) gives the sixth century to be the earliest date when Ganapati as the elephant-headed god, came to be generally worshipped by the Hindus.
- ↑ The Sāradātilaka speaks of fifty-one forms of Ganapati.
- ↑ The Silparatna says that he is seated on a lotus-pedestal under a kalpa-tree; that he has ten arms holding the weapons mentioned in the Mudgala-Purāna and that he is surrounded by gods and ganas. No. 84 of the Tanjore inscriptions (S.I.I., Vol. II, p. 407) refers to a comfortably seated Ganapati and mentions a tree as one of his accompaniments. The reference may be to Mahā-Ganapati; but the inscription states that he had only four divine arms.
- ↑ A stone image of this form of Ganapati is found at Tiruvottiyūr near Madras. It is of recent make and has the five heads all arranged in a circle.
- ↑ The Gānāpatyas recognize six forms of Ganapati to be the most important, viz., Mahā-Ganapati, Haridrā- Ganapati, Uchchhishta-Ganapali, Navanīta-Ganapati, Svarna-Ganapati and Santāna-Ganapati.
- ↑ I.e., Ganapati within the main temple and Ganapati in the surrounding shrines. Evidently the former was worshipped as a chief god and the latter as one of the subsidiary guardian deities of the temple.
- ↑ The famous image of Subrahmanya on the Palni Hills, called Palani Āndavar, has only two arms in one of which he holds the sakti, the other resting freelv on the waist.