The American Indian/Chapter 15

by Clark Wissler

CHAPTER XV

ARCHÆOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

In museums, the usual practice is to class as archæological specimens all objects not definitely associated with an historic tribe. The somewhat arbitrary nature of this grouping is obvious, but it is justifiable, for, in the main, these objects belong to an earlier time stratum than those that can be definitely assigned to living peoples. These specimens and their distributions constitute a large part of the data for one division of our subject and have been subjected to precisely the same kind of classification as have the culture traits of the historic tribes. Even a distribution map has been developed by Holmes,^[1] but the one we give here was first used in 1912 as a hall label for the American Museum of Natural History. It differs somewhat from the Holmes map, though, in the main, the boundaries to the areas are the same.

NORTH AMERICA

1. The North Atlantic Area. This area includes all of New England and the Maritime Provinces of Canada with an indefinite inland border to the north and west, and south to the Delaware River. Its general archæological characteristics are: extensive shell deposits on the coast; the dead interred in a flexed position and usually without accompanying objects; the absence of mounds and similar earthworks; crude pottery, with pointed bottoms (Fig. 29) and rudely stamped decorations; the grooved ax and long cylindrical stone pestle; extensive steatite quarries and vessels of the same material; and, finally, great numbers of rock-shelters. A detailed view of the area, however, reveals at least two subdivisions: a southern including the territory from the Delaware River to the Maine-New Hampshire boundary; and a northern from that point onward to Newfoundland.^[2]

Fig. 76. Archæological Areas

The typical culture lies in the southern sub-area, centering in New Jersey. In this area village sites with cache pits for storage are numerous and often enclosed by traces of small defensive works. Shell-heaps are small and relatively barren of specimens. Objects made of stone are abundant and varied,

Fig. 77. Types of Stone Implements from the North Atlantic Area: the grooved ax; the rounded celt; the plummet; the gouge; the bayonet-shaped point; and the long pestle

and show good workmanship; the forms include the grooved ax, rounded celt, pestles, and problematical forms,^[3] as banner stones, gorgets, etc. One noteworthy object is the carved stone human head, found in New Jersey. All these traits are found with much less intensity east of the Hudson where the plummet, gouge and adze appear. In the Hudson Valley proper we find some intrusive Iroquoian pottery forms. Finally, we have in this region a large number of rock-shelters.

The northern half of the area, including Maine, Gaspé, and the Maritime Provinces differs from the preceding in the relative scarcity of village sites and in the fact that when such sites are found they lack cache pits and are without defensive works, particularly east of the Penobscot. Shell-heaps are, on the contrary, large and numerous, containing a larger proportion of objects than those of the southern area, their numbers increasing as we go north and east. The same ratio holds for objects found in graves. Pottery, too, shows a change in form as we go eastward, the bottom rounded and

Fig. 78. Section of Finch's Rock-Shelter. Harrington, 1909. I

with outcurved lip, while stamped designs increase. The grooved ax, pestle, and problematical forms are replaced by the angular celt, gouge, and plummet. A somewhat divergent group of finds are those with the so-called "red-paint" burials, 4 confined to the lower Penobscot Valley. Here stone objects only (celts, gouges, adzes, and bayonet-shaped slate points) and masses of red ocher are found with certain burials.

In addition to these geographical segregations of artifacts, some advance has been made in the chronological analysis of the area. Thus, in the northern part, the objects found in shell-heaps seem to differ from those found in certain types of graves, particularly the "red-paint" burials just noted, suggesting that we have here the remains of at least two cultures, though their time relations remain in doubt. Likewise, the claim has been made that the rock-shelters of the south show some evidences of stratification in that the lower

Fig. 79. Finch’s Rock-Shelter, Westchester County, New York
Harrington, 1909. I

levels contained no pottery.^[4] This conclusion is, however, far from final. Lastly, mention should be made of certain evidences of an earlier culture in New Jersey.^[5] Yet, it must be admitted that these are little more than hints of possible sequence of cultures and that, on the whole, the archæological artifacts so far brought to light stand as the exponents of one culture, though spanning a considerable time interval.

2. South Atlantic Area. As indicated on the map, this area includes the South Atlantic coast plane and a part of Florida. Shell-heaps are even more abundant than in the North Atlantic area and in Florida attain astonishing proportions. Large domiciliary mounds and low burial mounds are also numerous along the coast and rivers, particularly the St. Johns in Florida. The area, as a whole, may be divided into three districts: Georgia and northward, west Florida on the mainland, and peninsular Florida; yet, the culture center seems to be in coastal and central Georgia. Several distinct forms of burial have been noted: extended (the body at full length, as is our custom), flexed (legs drawn up against the body), bone burial (body exposed until flesh decays, when bones are interred), and cremation. Urn burial is also frequent here, a trait widely distributed in South America. Again, whereas in the North Atlantic area objects of any kind are seldom found in graves, they are here numerous, particularly small pottery figures. Some attempts to work gold and copper were made. In contrast to the preceding area, very few grooved axes occur, as is the case in the Antilles to the south, and the celt forms of the area are also said to suggest those of these islands. Occasionally, a kind of perforated ax is found somewhat similar to those of South America. Stone-tempered pottery is abundant, but limited in type, and though without color decoration is ornately treated with stamped and incised designs. Clay pipes are of angular trumpet shapes with bowls expanded into human or animal heads. In contrast to the North Atlantic area we find many objects made of shell, in particular a trimmed and perforated conch suggesting its use as a hoe. Among other features are finely carved stone bowls and curious stone plates, or disks.^[6]

The remains from west Florida stand somewhat apart from the typical culture, as outlined above. Here cremation is rare, but with the urn burial, sometimes occurs. Large deposits of pots are often found with the burials, the forms in some cases suggesting a distinct type of mortuary ware. In common with burials on the peninsula, the accompanying pots were almost invariably perforated through the bottom, or "killed." But in addition to this mortuary pottery there is great variety of ornamental and useful vessels. The forms suggest both those of Area 4 and the types found in Georgia (Figs. 27 and 28). Tobacco pipes are heavy and angular. All these differences are, however, in keeping with the marginal culture position of west Florida.

The peninsula also presents marginal peculiarities. Its distinctions lie in the enormous shell-heaps and a highly developed type of ready-made mortuary pottery, bizarre in form, with the perforation made previous to baking; also mortuary pottery arrow points. Again, there are suggestions of cannibalism on the St. Johns and of pile-villages in the south, features prominent on the adjacent coast of South America.

3. The Iroquoian Area. Adjacent to, and in a sense between, the North and South Atlantic areas, is an inland elevated region centering in New York and Pennsylvania. This was the range of tribes speaking Iroquoian languages and it is from the immediate ancestors of these tribes that by far the greater part of our museum collections come.

Iroquoian villages were characterized by defensive walls of circumvallation, their burials by large ossuaries, and their stone-work by lack of variety. A peculiar celt and adze of rectangular cross-section are found to the exclusion of the grooved ax and gouge. In the southern half of the area a chipped celt is typical. The triangular arrow point is abundant and the long stone pestle inconspicuous. Yet the distinguishing feature of Iroquoian archæology is a highly unique form of pottery (Fig. 29). It is well made, with globular body, constricted neck, and overhanging or flaring collar, bearing rectilinear incised decorations. The characteristic form prevails in the east and south of the area; in the western part the vessel is somewhat squat with short neck turned outward into a notched rim. The typical pottery pipe is trumpet-shaped, slightly bent, with the bowls representing miniature pots, animals, etc. Finally, note should be made of the richness and variety in objects made of bone and antler.^[7]

Fig. 80. Distinguishing Iroquoian Types: the flat celt; triangular arrow-heads; and trumpet-shaped pottery pipes

This older Iroquoian culture seems to overlie one (or more) of different form, now believed to be Algonquian.^[8] This would appear to center to the southeast of Lake Ontario—perhaps only because that region is best known to us. It includes the grooved ax, gouge, long stone pestle, banner stones and other problematical forms, all having analogies elsewhere, more particularly in New England. Separated from these, perhaps, but occurring in the same region are a series of slate objects—bayonet-shaped points, barbed points with notched tangs, etc.—presenting analogies to objects in the North Atlantic area and in particular to the "red-paint" culture of the Penobscot.

4. The Mississippi-Ohio Area. Perhaps the most striking feature here is mound building. Although in the popular mind mounds are associated with the state of Ohio, they are very numerous on both sides of the Ohio River and on down the Mississippi. Some of the most striking structures are the pyramidal Cahokia mound in Madison County, Illinois; Etowah mound, Forsyth County, Georgia; Grave Creek mound, Marshall County, West Virginia, the largest conical mound known; Fort Ancient and the Serpent mound of Ohio. Effigy mounds are rare, this type being characteristic of an adjoining area. The whole of the mound-building culture in the Ohio Valley had vanished before the period of discovery, but farther south there are historical and other evidences that it still survived.^[9]

Pottery is also distinctive. Here we find fine bottle-shaped vases and many life forms, including human figures. Color is used in decoration, especially in Arkansas. The center of the art may be roughly defined by a circle inscribed about Memphis, intersecting Nashville, Tennessee. We have already noted that other artifacts tended to center in this region, so that we have a true culture center here. As one goes north into Ohio, the pottery becomes cruder and color disappears.

Of stone objects, we may note the fine discoidal stones south of the Ohio. Also very large stone pipes in animal and human forms. In the middle of the area the grooved ax is not uncommon and we find some very fine flaked objects. Shell objects are numerous; particularly striking are the engraved gorgets and the so-called hair pins. The margin of the Gulf Coast and over into Texas is one of simpler archæological culture, though the absence of the grooved ax and some other forms suggests similarities to the South Atlantic area.

To enumerate some of the unique objects indexing the cultural units of the whole area, we have: occasional truncated mounds; stone box-like graves; large effigy pipes; color decoration of pottery and skilful modeling of life forms, particularly the human head; numerous gorgets of shell and stone; reel-shaped copper ornaments; spool-like earplug; large chipped blades variously designated as spades and

Fig. 81. Problematic Forms: Banner Stones, Bird Stone, and Gorgets

Fig. 82. Discoidal Stone, Spatulate Forms, Effigy, and Platform Pipes; the Mississippi-Ohio Area

hoes; unusually large caches of chipped blanks and occasional repoussé copper plates.

While the true center of the area lies, as just defined, the northern and southern extensions present some individualities. As noted at the outset, along the Ohio River centering in Ohio, is a rich mound area, which has, perhaps, more earthworks to the square mile than any other part of the world. However, this prominence may be due to excessive zeal in exploration rather than actual superiority. Students of the subject usually recognize two varieties of mound culture here: that known as Hopewell, culminating in the Scioto Valley; and that known as Fort Ancient, centering in the Miami drainage. The latter seems to reach southward into Kentucky,^[10] and is, on the whole, more extended and less specialized than that of the Hopewell type. Further, the distinctive traits of Hopewell culture are more like those at the center of the area in Tennessee than are those of Fort Ancient.

Some observers propose a third culture for Ohio, embracing certain curious burials in gravel banks, seemingly independent of mound structures. This type of interment extends westward into Indiana. However, no definite estimate of these observations can be made until closer studies of the area as a whole are available.^[11]

As remarked above, the southern portion of the area seems truly marginal to this and the South Atlantic area.

5. The Great Lake Area. This is also a mound area and for that reason may be but a part of the preceding; yet, the well-developed copper industry south of Lake Superior and the specialized type of effigy mound in the same region is generally considered as sufficient warrant for the designation of a separate archæological area. Small mounds^[12] occur in most parts and there is no reason for believing them historically independent of the whole mound trait extending from the Gulf Coast northward, but the aboriginal copper workings previously referred to give this outlying culture area a unique position. The most distinctive forms of copper objects found here are the socketed ax, or spud, which may be interpreted as a hafting adaptation to metal. Some of the copper arrow points are notched like those of stone, but others have a socket similar to the spud. A few copper axes duplicating the form of the grooved stone ax have been found here, and in the area to the south, but the usual form of ax is a simple celt-like blade without grooves or socket. Knives are common. Ornamental objects are not so numerous as in the preceding area, particularly the fine repoussé work of southern mounds.

Peculiar features in Michigan are the "garden beds," ridged or furrowed tracts, the use of which is by no means obvious. Of stone objects, the most peculiar are the fluted ax, faceted celt, and problematic forms. The latter include banner stones, bird- and saddle-shaped stones, etc., and extend eastward into the northern half of the North Atlantic area. They are rarely found in graves and seldom in mounds, and for this reason have been regarded as older even than mound culture. Yet their distribution corresponds closely to the known Algonquian linguistic area and the Eastern Woodland culture area, a fact that must be considered in estimating their chronological positions.^[13] Another feature is the use of catlinite, a handsome red stone, for pipes, which though limited as to sources, yet found its way over the entire area.

The archæology of the Missouri Valley is somewhat differentiated from the center in Wisconsin. Such remains as have come to light in Dakota are associated with the cultures of the historic tribes. Bone artifacts predominate, reminding one of the great hunting area to the north. This analogy is further stimulated by the presence of certain parallel forms; for example, the knife made by inserting small stone blades into the side of a bone handle, suggesting Eskimo types.

Farther south in Nebraska some recent excavations report evidences of older cultures whose people lived in rectangular pit-houses, a form so far unique in the area.^[14]

6. The Plains. The present state of our knowledge indicates that the Plains is a barren area around whose border we find a fringe of artifacts common in the adjoining areas. Thus, the metate of Area 7 finds its way into this one, pottery of the Missouri type spreads somewhat on its eastern border, and the stone club and tubular pipe of 9 are also found in the west. Yet, there has been very little field exploration in the heart of the area so that its vacuity may be more apparent than real. Such collections as have been made contain the grooved

Fig. 83. The Fluted Stone Ax and the Copper Spud, Characteristic of Wisconsin

hammer, chipped scrapers, points, and the bone implements found among the historic tribes.

Among the most striking features are the great quarries of quartzite in the valley of the Platte, Wyoming,^[15] where tracts many acres in extent show deep and extensive diggings for quartzite nodules. When found, these were broken into convenient blanks for transport, while the chips and rejected pieces were left behind where they serve to mark the site. In addition to these localized works, we find scattered everywhere in the great central reaches of the area, circles and lines of boulders, with an occasional effigy in outline. The small circles are assumed to mark tipi sites; but long lines of stones have been noted whose use is problematical, though in Montana the historic Indians claim them as markers for buffalo pounds. About the only other permanent evidences of man's work are the numerous pictographs pecked into the faces of rocks and ledges. Though not carefully studied, these seem to fall into two types, one of which is quite modern. Pottery is not found in the heart of the area, but stone vessels of original form are rather numerous. These are often crude, suggesting hollowed-out boulders, though some are dressed to the shape of an egg, while others are roughly pyramidal. All these data lead us to suspect that a more systematic survey of the true archæological center of the Plains will clearly define a distinct type of prehistoric culture.

7. The Pueblo Area. In the states of Arizona and New Mexico centers the richest archæological province north of old Mexico. For years ruthless relic hunters have overrun it, turning over burial grounds and knocking down ruined walls in their search for marketable plunder, without exhausting the supply. Also a number of distinguished archæologists have spent the active years of their lives surveying groups of these remains, but notwithstanding all this, whole regions are still unknown. Thus, though some progress has been made in the cultural analysis of the area, the greater part of the task remains unraveled.

If we consider first the general geography of the country, the mere topography seems to segregate the ruins into four large groups: those of the Rio Grande drainage, the San Juan, the Little Colorado, and the Gila. These four river valleys contain by far the greater part of the known sites. By using these gross distinctions as the points of departure, we can the more readily summarize the present state of the subject.

The two distinguishing archæological characters here are architecture and ceramics. As more attention has been given the latter, we may consider it at once. In the first place, there is a kind of glazed decoration which characterizes the sites of the Rio Grande country, but which extends westward into that of the Little Colorado. As this is territory occupied by the historic Pueblo peoples, a connection between the two has been assumed and, in fact, recently proven.^[16]

Another easily distinguishable type of pottery is that finished in white and decorated in black. This black-on-white ware has for long been considered one of the oldest and fundamental Pueblo types, chiefly because it is found in almost all parts of the area. Yet, its distribution does not equal that of corrugated ware, that type in which the original coils of clay can be seen, which in the Rio Grande Valley, at least, has as good claim to antiquity as the black-on-white. In addition, a number of more recent and local types of pottery have been defined,^[17] but the preceding are sufficient to show that we can safely assume the fundamental unity of the original Pueblo cultures.

Turning to architecture, we note that the surviving Pueblo structures are merely accumulations of one-room houses and that those now occupied in the Rio Grande Valley do not differ in essentials from those in ruins. Hence, it is clear that a large portion of these ruined houses belong to the antecedent culture of the historic Pueblo natives, whose traits have been outlined in the preceding chapter. The center of dispersion for this type seems to have been in the Rio Grande Valley, from which it spread outward in all directions. To the north and west, across the headwaters of the Rio Grande and over into the San Juan country, we have what is known as the cliff-dweller type of house. Just what may be the specific relations of these to the central type cannot be determined from the data at hand, but since the basic house plan seems to be of the Pueblo type, we may safely assume a close historical connection. The essentials of this plan are a bracket-like enclosure of articulated rooms in the open court of which is a kiva, or ceremonial chamber. In fact, the presence of this kiva alone, because of its unique form and functions, would be sufficient ground for assuming such a connection.

In the Little Colorado country and down the Rio Verde toward its junction with the Gila, we find again the three kinds of houses noted in the preceding localities; the cave-like dwelling in the rock, the true cliff house, and the larger Pueblo pile of the open country. The remainder of the Gila is not so well known but seems to present some differences, both in architecture and ceramics. The best-known ruin is that of Casas Grandes, whose groundplan reminds us of southern Mexico rather than of the Rio Grande.

8. California. While from the artifacts in collections this area can be separated into three more or less distinct parts, there is still a great deal in common.^[18] One of the most numerous artifacts, and therefore the best index of California archæology, is the stone mortar, found throughout the length and breadth of the state, in the bottoms and tops of shell deposits and apparently in the auriferous gravels. Another equally distributed, but apparently less ancient artifact, is the tubular stone pipe. Bone awls and a number of other less striking artifacts could be added to this list.

The recognized subdivisions of the area are the southwestern, central, and northwestern portions of the state. The former, centering in the Santa Barbara Islands, is the home of the most unique artifacts. These are finely wrought bowls, boat-shaped vessels, baking slabs, and many problematic forms, all of steatite; great varieties of shell beads and pendants, also inlay shell-work in asphaltum; and fine examples of flaked edge tools. Among the very unique objects are numerous steatite carvings of the killer whale or at least a fish with an erect fin; perforated ring-like stones reminding one of African digging-stick weights, and curious shell hooks very much like those from the Pacific Islands.

In northwestern California is a relatively small area which, though less distinctive, still presents unique features. Among these are curious curved stone adze handles, a stone hammer with broad base and flanged head, pestles with pointed handles, and flanges at their bases, and perforated net sinkers.

The artifacts from the great central area are far less unique, but still we find here a curious plummet stone, very rarely, if at all, met with in the north and the south. Some slight evidences of intrusion from the southwestern area are noted, particularly in inlay work. While the distribution of the typical artifacts is quite uniform, there is the suggestion of local divergence about the city of Stockton where small mounds have yielded a few unusual objects. Shell mounds are numerous on the coast, particularly around San Francisco Bay. So far as these have been investigated, they show essentially the same culture from top to bottom, though improvements in form and finish are in evidence.^[19] Toward the southeast we meet with some intrusive traits from Area 7, as pottery and the metate, almost entirely confined to the Shoshonean-speaking peoples.

In general, the most striking feature of California culture is its unity, both geographically and chronologically. Rather more evidences of antiquity have come to hand for this area than elsewhere, as we shall see later.

9. The Columbia Basin. This area comprises the greater part of the Columbia drainage, and a part of the Frazer Valley. Its archaeology has been investigated in type localities by Harlan I. Smith,^[20] who finds a fairly uniform culture throughout, characterized by the prevalence of chipped points and the rarity of those of ground stone; bone and antler, digging-stick handles; bone tubes; arrow-shaft smoothers; hand hammers; pestles; summer lodge circles of stones; and semi-subterranean house pits. Yet over and above this similarity, two centers can be differentiated, one in the heart of British Columbia, the range of the Thompson Indians, and the other along the Columbia between the Willamette and the Snake rivers. The latter seems to be the seat of the most highly developed culture characterized by several unique artifacts, the so-called ape-head stone carvings, weight stones with suspension hoops, carved clubs, etc. Lewis^[21] suggests that this exuberance of carving in stone is due to the lack of suitable wood, since further down the river and along the coast, where wood is available, we find carving.

The Thompson country in British Columbia is not so unique but it is differentiated by the use of nephrite, sometimes called jade, a special form of stone scraper, etc.

Between these two centers, particularly in the Yakima Valley, Washington, is found a less intense culture having some of the peculiarities of the two flanking centers.

10. North Pacific Coast Area. Very little is known of the archæology here, except in the vicinity of Puget Sound, where the investigations of Smith^[22] reveal an early historical connection with Area 9. As this locality is truly marginal to the area, we assume that the true center lies northward, since we find there some evidences of a culture directly antecedent to that of the historic tribes.

11. The Arctic Area. The only noteworthy archæological work in this area was by Dall^[23] and Jochelson in the Aleutians, Solberg^[24] in Greenland, and Stéfansson^[25] at Point Barrow and Franklin Bay. Though relic-bearing deposits of considerable depth have been reported by these explorers, their great antiquity has not been established; and while some changes in culture have been noted, these are, in the main, but variants of the historic Eskimo culture. A description of the artifacts is, therefore, unnecessary.

12. The Canadian Area. By the mere process of elimination we have left the whole interior of Canada. Practically no archæological work has been done here except in the southern border, where, as may be anticipated, the cultures are marginal to those of the adjoining areas. The reports of missionaries and explorers lead us to suspect that it is the weakest archæological area on the continent.

13. Northern Mexico. In turning to the southern extension of the continent, we approach a difficult task. The problem is not only complex, but further complicated by the lack of definite knowledge. We have already sketched the cultures found here by the Spanish invaders, but an empirical grouping of the archæological artifacts gathered from this general region introduces an unknown chronological factor, which may give quite a different result from our previous grouping by historical data. Holmes^[26] proposes five archæological areas which we designate as follows: Northern Mexico, Central Mexico, State of Oaxaca, Yucatan, and Panama. Northern Mexico is the area of which we know least, so that its demarcation is rather an expression of ignorance than otherwise. The best-known site is Casas Grandes, which has striking similarities to the Pueblo culture north of the Rio Grande, suggesting that ultimately we may find this to be an intermediate area.

14. Central Mexico. This was the seat of Nahua, or Aztec culture, and has been sufficiently characterized in the preceding chapter and in the section dealing with architecture.

15. State of Oaxaca. The most distinctive ruins in this area are those at Mitla, supposed to have been the center of Zapotec culture. While the roofs of these buildings were of the flat beam type characteristic of Areas 19, 13 and 7, the stucco mosaics are of the Maya type, or Area 16. Thus the intermediate position of this trait is clear. On the other hand, Mitla takes the lead in stone masonry and, in fact, rises almost to the level of Peru. Of particular interest is the discovery of the original quarries, with the half-cut blocks, revealing all the essential details of the process. All this stone cutting was with stone tools, as was the case in Area 16. A unique architectural feature is a cross-shaped tomb. 28 The pottery is of good quality, but frequently unpainted. So far, very little metal work has been f6und here. Of a somewhat novel interest are several striking parallels to Peruvian traits. 29

16. Yucatan. This area covers the range of Maya culture whose characteristics have been outlined in the preceding chapter and under the head of architecture. The most impressive archaeological remains are the great ruined cities, the best-known of which are shown on the accompanying map. The carved monuments, or stelæ, bear hieroglyphic inscriptions, many of which are dated. This characteristic makes them by far the most important antiquities in the New World, since it is from these alone that we get our safest idea of time perspective. 30

17. Panama. In the classification of historic cultures, we placed this geographical section with Colombia, but archæologists usually regard it as distinct. Yet no one attempts to

Fig. 84. Ancient Maya Cities. Morley, 1915. I

deny the resemblance of its artifacts to those from the Andean region. The individuality of the area appears in pottery and gold work. In fact, this is the only part of the northern continent which to any degree approaches the Andean level in metal work. Gold was cast, hammered and alloyed with copper in a bewildering variety of forms.^[27] Objects of copper only are rare, and true examples of bronze unknown. As in the Andean region, gold objects were placed with the dead, and we may infer that they had the same religious sacrificial functions as in Colombia.

Another unique group of objects are the ornate stone metates with legs, often appearing as life-like representations of jaguars. Stone tools and ornaments of excellent finish abound, particularly highly carved jadeite celts.^[28]

The pottery is of the tripod decorated forms noted under ceramics. One unique feature is that many of these legs are hollow and contain a ball, thus suggesting bells. As golden bells made on the same principle are also numerous, this bell concept becomes a prominent trait. Perhaps closely associated with it are the numerous pottery whistles.

18. The Antilles. The leading problem in Antillean archæology will always be the continental affiliations of this insular culture. The available data are meager enough but still permit of some generalizations. According to Fewkes^[29] the culture center of the area was Porto Rico and Haiti, which is also the approximate geographical center. The culture traits of the historic tribes have been outlined in the preceding chapter, where we saw that this was also the approximate center of culture when Columbus arrived upon the scene.

One of the most common objects in collections from the islands is a petal-shaped celt and its distribution is an index of the general culture distribution, for it is most abundant at the center designated above and relatively less frequent in the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles. In the latter, it gives way to an ax with lateral notches and sometimes side grooves. Another trait of general distribution is found in a type of pictograph, closely resembling those of the South American mainland, both in essential style and in juxtaposition to waterfalls and water courses. Likewise, the known pottery of the whole insular area is similar.

Of special archæological features, Porto Rico offers a fine series in her mysterious stone collars, numerous three-pointed stone figures, elbow stones, and carved celts. Thus, in the main, we are justified in designating the Antilles as a distinct archæological area, belonging rather to South America than to the northern continent.

SOUTH AMERICA

No one has attempted a close classification of South American archæology but certain suggestions have been made.^[30] We have prepared a map upon which are located the areas indicated by our present knowledge. There are six of these: Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Atlantic Highlands, and Patagonia. The interior of the tropical forest is a blank, for if it has any archæology, its discovery is for the future.

19. Colombia. In Colombia four culture centers have been recognized. In the north one centers about Antioquia, the home of the Tamahi and Nutabi peoples; the next to the south about Cartago (the Quimbaya); the third at Popayan (the Coconuco); and lastly, in the extreme south, the seat of the Chibcha empire. Though at the time of the conquest the latter was the center of the highest political development, the leading culture was formerly, at least, at Cartago.

No ruins of buildings comparable to those of the south have been noted. Even the mound development is feeble. However, there is one unique locality about San Augustine where remarkable monolithic statues have been found and also some mound structures. Metal work was praiseworthy, especially at Cartago. Skilful casting by the cire perdue method has been noted, and good examples of soldering, plating, and even gilding have been collected. Different colored alloys were produced with gold, silver, and copper.

Cartago was also the center of pottery development, but on the whole, Colombia pottery is inferior. Some painted decorations are in geometric patterns, but bold incised designs are more frequent. One striking feature is the tendency toward effigy vessels and vases bearing frogs, monkeys, etc., in relief, peeping over the brims. Spindle whorls of pottery, highly engraved, are frequent, but quite distinctive are the cylindrical pottery stamps for printing cloth and body painting. This may be considered as an independent invention of roller printing.

Emerald mines were worked. Colombian collections contain numbers of stone tools, particularly ax blades, some of which are grooved.

Very little is known of Venezuela, but the highland portion seems to have had culture affinities with Colombia. Unusually large stone mortars have been reported; ax blades are rectangular and triangular; pottery is rude, but shows incised decorations and the relief figures of Colombia; bone points and implements are abundant. Only a few mounds have been reported.

20. Ecuador. While Ecuador has some striking individualities, it nevertheless does show similarities to Peru on the one hand and to Colombia on the other. Historically, it is considered that a certain unity prevailed over the whole territory between the present boundary of Peru in the south and the River Ancasmayu on the north. This province is usually designated as the empire of Quito. The archæology of this region is not very well known, but there seems to be considerable variety and curious local developments. Two general subdivisions are recognized, the interior highland culture and that of the coast plain. Of the latter, Manabi is the most peculiar, with its stone chairs, carved slabs, pillars, and stone buildings; traits not found elsewhere.^[31]

Burial mounds are frequent on the coast and extend northward from Quito. Gold work is not so strongly developed as elsewhere but there is a special development in the art of overlaying with gold leaf. This, as well as pottery, is more highly developed on the coast. A great variety of stone and copper club heads and axes is to be found in the highlands, but they are not conspicuous on the coast.

21. Peru. Under another head we have outlined the culture of this area, hence we may merely note the chronological and local differences.^[32] Three formative culture centers may be recognized: Nasca, Trujillo and Tiahuanaco. These individualities, according to Uhle,^[33] seem to have grown up from a more homogeneous state which formed the framework of Peruvian culture. Yet, in spite of all the investigations that have been made, it cannot be clearly perceived which of these three centers is the oldest, in fact, the data are more consistent with the view that they were in the main contemporaneous and mutually reactive.

When the Inca come into control of the whole area, certain tendencies to uniformity in art and technology are apparent, no doubt due to the shifting of population, the improved means of communication, and the direct legislation of the Inca government.

22. Chile. This region is frequently included in that of Peru, but the older underlying culture seems to have differed from that of the Inca period. There are solid historical grounds for considering the southern extension of Inca culture to be recent and so overlying the native cultures. In fact, the shell mounds of the long coast line indicate three periods of occupation. In the first of these, there were long-headed people with a rude culture, though they made some pottery. Later came a round-headed people of much higher culture, somewhat like the older Peruvians. Later still, the Inca overran this area as far south as the Maule River. The pottery of the earlier periods is for the most part undecorated, metal work is not frequent, but usually of Inca patterns. On the whole, the interior elevated portions of Chile seem to have sheltered a higher culture than the coast.

In the north, it will be noted that the area reaches out through Bolivia into Argentina, where centers the unique Calchaqui, or Diaguite culture.^[34] Aside from its own peculiar problems, this culture is interesting in that it, like the Pueblo culture of the United States, is an extreme outpost of the New World highland culture. There are even some curious correspondences between the two, the significance of which is not clear.

Urn burial so widely diffused in the Atlantic Highland area (23) turns up here in infant burial only. Thus, one of the most puzzling peculiarities of the Calchaqui culture is the great number of large decorated urns containing the remains of very young infants. Adult urn burial is found just north and east of Calchaqui in the edge of the Atlantic Highland area. The designs have some vague resemblances to Marajo urns. Incidentally, we may note that urn burial of any kind is practically unknown in the Andean region. Other kinds of pottery are common in Calchaqui sites, some of which resemble the Nasca ware. The grooved ax also occurs here as in Ecuador. There are quite a number of original and unique articles, as the "knuckle-duster," a kind of hand dagger, and cup-shaped bells.^[35]

23. The Atlantic Highlands. In this area we have included the whole coast from the mouth of the Orinoco to the La Plata, and a considerable portion of the interior. There are at least two general characteristics, that of urn burial throughout and, on the coast, extensive shell mounds. Most of these shell deposits are of human origin. On the north coast they contain objects suggesting the culture of the Antilles,^[36] but from near the Amazon down, they seem to have a character of their own. That they contain pottery is not certain, the indications being that where found pottery is intrusive from the surface and later urn burials. Highly finished stone axes and other objects are common, and among the bones no suggestions of cannibalism are seen. In the vicinity of Santa Catharina, Brazil, there are finely wrought stone mortars in animal forms, and unique small point-like objects.^[37]

Outside the shell mounds and inland, the most striking objects come from Marajo Island and the territory surrounding the lower Amazon. A special feature is the engraved decoration reinforced with color, and a very unique object is the tanga, or pottery fig leaf.

Urn burial is highly characteristic of the Amazon Basin and extends far to the south, though its intensity declines as we leave the Amazon in either direction. Taking the artifacts as a whole, two rather clearly marked subdivisions of the area are suggested, the one centering around Marajo and the other in southern Brazil, but taken in its entirety, it is essentially an area of simple culture in contrast to those we have just considered.

24. Patagonia. In this area is included all the territory east of the Andes from Cape Horn up into the Pampas and the lower insular part of Chile. Its archæology is very simple and suggests that it has always been the home of a simple hunting and fisher-folk. The shell mounds continue along the coast on both sides, so that we have a continuous chain from the Orinoco around to Peru. No doubt the systematic investigation of these in the future will yield results of great value.

Considerable attention has been given to the archæology of this region, both of the coast and the interior, and certain claims to antiquity made which we shall consider elsewhere. Two types of implements have been distinguished, an older chipped type and later polished implements, but this chronological relation is not certain. Some rude pottery has been found in parts of the area, particularly on the east coast, which has some resemblance to the pottery of eastern United States. Both the stone work and pottery of the Andean margin is of a higher order than in the east. One of the distinguishing objects found throughout the open plains of the area is the stone bola. Two other artifacts of an index value are the plano-convex flaked knife and the duck-bill scraper.^[38]

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1. Holmes, 1914. I.
2. Dixon, 1914. I; Skinner, 1909. I; Abbott, 1877. I.
3. Moorehead, 1917. I.
4. Harrington, 1909. I; Schrabisch, 1909. I.
5. Volk, 1911. I; Spier, 1916. I.
6. Holmes, 1903. I; Jones, C. C., 1873. I.
7. Parker, 1916. II.
8. Wintemberg, 1901. I, p. 38.
9. Thomas, 1889. I.
10. Smith, H. I., 1911. I.
11. Moorehead, 1916. I.
12. Radin, 1911. I.
13. Moorehead, 1917. I.
14. Sterns, 1915. I.
15. Smith, H. I., 1910. I.
16. Nelson, N. C., 1916. I.
17. Kidder, 1915. I; Nelson, N. C., 1916. I.
18. Kroeber, 1909. I.
19. Nelson, N. C., 1909. I.
20. Smith, H. I., 1910. II.
21. Lewis, 1906. I.
22. Smith, H. I., 1907. I.
23. Dall, 1877. I.
24. Solberg, 1907. I.
25. Stefánsson, 1914. I.
26. Holmes, 1914. I.
27. MacCurdy, 1911. I.
28. Hartman, 1901. I.
29. Fewkes, 1902. I.
30. Holmes, 1914. I; Joyce, 1912. I.
31. Saville, 1907. I; 1910. I.
32. Squier, 1877. I.
33. Uhle and Stübel, 1892. I.
34. Bowman, 1916. I.
35. Joyce, 1912. I.
36. Im Thurn, 1883. I.
37. Joyce, 1912. I, p. 260.
38. Hrdlicka, 1912. I, p. 147.