The Great Didactic of John Amos Comenius/The Great Didactic/Chapter 12
CHAPTER XII
IT IS POSSIBLE TO REFORM SCHOOLS
1. To cure deep-seated maladies is difficult and often well-nigh impossible. But if any one offer an efficacious remedy, does the sick man reject his services? Does he not rather wish to obtain aid as quickly as possible, and especially if he think that the physician is guided not by mere opinion but by solid reason? We, at any rate, in this our undertaking, have reached the point at which we must make plain (1) what we actually promise, and (2) on what principles we intend to proceed.
2. We promise, then, such a system of education that
(iv)(i) All the young shall be educated (except those to whom God has denied understanding).
(iv)(ii) And in all those subjects which are able to make a man wise, virtuous, and pious.
(iv)(iii) That the process of education, being a preparation for life, shall be completed before maturity is reached.
(iv) That this education shall be conducted without blows, rigour, or compulsion, as gently and pleasantly as possible, and in the most natural manner (just as a living body increases in size without any straining or forcible extension of the limbs; since if food, care, and exercise are properly supplied, the body grows and becomes strong, gradually, imperceptibly, and of its own accord. In the same way I maintain that nutriment, care, and exercise, prudently supplied to the mind, lead it naturally to wisdom, virtue, and piety).
(iv)(v) That the education given shall be not false but real, not superficial but thorough; that is to say, that the rational animal, man, shall be guided, not by the intellects of other men, but by his own; shall not merely read the opinions of others and grasp their meaning or commit them to memory and repeat them, but shall himself penetrate to the root of things and acquire the habit of genuinely understanding and making use of what he learns. (vi) That this education shall be not laborious but very easy. The class instruction shall last only four hours each day, and shall be conducted in such a manner that one master may teach hundreds of pupils at the same time, with ten times as little trouble as is now expended on the teaching of one.
3. But who will have faith in these things before he see them? It is a well-known peculiarity of men that before a remarkable discovery is made they wonder how it can be possible, while after its achievement they are surprised that it was not discovered before. When Archimedes undertook for King Hiero to move down to the sea with one hand an immense ship that a hundred men were not able to stir, his proposal was received with laughter; but its accomplishment was viewed with stupefaction.
4. When Columbus suspected that there were new islands in the west, no one, with the exception of the King of Castille, was willing to hear him or give him any assistance towards making the experiment. It is related that his very companions on the voyage, in despair at their frequent disappointments, were within a little of throwing him into the sea and returning with their task unfulfilled. But, in spite of all, that vast new continent was discovered, and now we all wonder how it could have remained so long unknown. That well-known jest of Columbus illustrates the same point. For when, at a banquet, some Spaniards, who were envious that an Italian should have the glory of such a discovery, began to mock him, and tauntingly said that the other hemisphere had been discovered not by skill but by chance, and could have been just as easily discovered by anybody else, he proposed an elegant problem. “How,” he asked, “can a hen’s egg, unsupported, be made to stand on its end?” When all had tried in vain to do this, he tapped the shell gentlyupon the table, cracked it, and in this way made it stand. The others laughed, and exclaimed that they could do the same thing. “No doubt you can, now that you have seen how it can be done,” said he, “but how is it that no one could do it before me?”
5. I believe that the same thing would have happened if John Faust, the inventor of printing, had made it known that he possessed a method by which one man, within a week, could copy more books than ten of the fastest copyists could copy in a year in the ordinary way; that the books would be better written; that from beginning to end all the copies would be exactly similar; and that all would be absolutely free from errors provided that one copy had been corrected. Who would have believed him? Who would not have thought it a riddle, or a piece of vain and foolish boasting? And yet every child knows now that this is sober truth.
6. If Berthold Schwartz, the inventor of muskets, had addressed the archers with these words: “Your bows, your catapults, and your slings are of little worth. I will give you a weapon which, without any human force, by the agency of fire alone, will not only hurl forth stones and iron, but will propel them farther and with more certainty, so that they will strike, uproot, or lay low whatever comes in their way.” Which of them would not have received him with laughter? So much is it the custom to consider everything new as marvellous and incredible.
7. Nor could the American Indians comprehend how one man is able to communicate his thoughts to another without the use of speech, without a messenger, but by simply sending a sheet of paper. Yet with us a man of the meanest intelligence can understand this.
Thus do the perplexities of one age afford amusement to the next.
8. I can easily see that this will happen to my new undertaking; in fact, I have already experienced it. Some people are certain to be indignant that there are men who find imperfections in the schools, books, and methods in use, and who dare to promise something unusual and extraordinary.
9. It would be easy for me to appeal to results as the most trustworthy witnesses (such confidence do I place in my God). But since I am writing this, not for the unlearned crowd, but for men of education, I must give demonstrative proof that it is possible to imbue all the young with knowledge, virtue, and piety, and to do so without that unpleasantness and difficulty continually experienced by the teachers, no less than by the learners, under the old system.
10. The one and sufficient demonstration is this: That each individual creature not only suffers itself to be easily led in the direction which its nature finds congenial, but is actually impelled towards the desired goal, and suffers pain if any obstacle be interposed.
11. A bird learns to fly, a fish to swim, and a beast to run without any compulsion. They do these things of their own accord as soon as they feel that their limbs are sufficiently strong. Water runs downhill of its own accord, and, in the same way, fire burns when fuel and a current of air are supplied; a round stone rolls down hill, while a square stone remains stationary; the eye and a mirror receive the impression of an object when there is sufficient light, and seeds sprout when their surroundings are suitably warm and damp. In fact, each of these things strives to fulfil the function for which it is naturally fitted, and does this more perfectly when assisted, no matter how slight the assistance may be.
12. Since then, as we saw in chap. v., the seeds of knowledge, of virtue, and of piety exist in all men (with the exception of monstrosities), it follows of necessity that they need nothing but a gentle impulse and prudent guidance.
13. But, it is objected, it is not out of every piece of wood that a Mercury can be carved. I answer: But out of every human being, if he be not utterly corrupt, a man can be formed.
14. But our inner strength, some one will remark, has been weakened by the Fall. I reply, weakened, yes, but not extinguished. Even our bodily force, if it be in bad condition, can be restored to its natural vigour by walking, running, and artificial forms of exercise. For, although the first created were able to walk, speak, and think as soon as they came into existence, while we cannot do so unless taught by practice, it does not therefore follow that these things cannot be learned without perplexity, labour, and uncertainty. For, if we learn without very great difficulty to perform the functions of the body, such as eating, drinking, walking, and jumping, why should we not learn to perform those of the mind with similar ease, if the proper instruction be given? Again, in a few months a horse-trainer can teach a horse to trot, jump, run in a circle, and perform evolutions to signs given by a whip; a mere circus performer teaches a bear to dance, a hare to beat the drum, and a dog to plough, to wrestle, or to divine; a weak old woman can teach her parrot, her magpie, or her crow to imitate a human voice or a melody; and all these things can be taught in a short time, although they are contrary to nature. And shall not a man be easily taught those things to which nature, I will not say admits him, or leads him, but rather urges and impels him? The trainers of animals would laugh at any one who seriously brought forward this argument.
15. But it is objected that, owing to the difficulty of the subjects to be learned, all men cannot grasp them. I reply: What is that difficulty? Does there exist any body of such a dark colour that I cannot be reflected in a mirror, if placed conveniently in the light? Is there anything that cannot be painted on a canvas, provided that the man who paints has learned the art of painting? Is there any seed or root that the earth cannot receive and bring to germination by its warmth, if the gardener understand when, where, and how it should be sown? Moreover, there is in the world no rock or tower of such a height that it cannot be scaled by any man (provided he lack not feet) if ladders are placed in the proper position or steps are cut in the rock, made in the right place, and furnished with railings against the danger of falling over. It is true that very few scale the heights of wisdom, though many start gaily on the journey, and that those who get any distance do so at the cost of toil, loss of breath, weariness, and giddiness; this, however, does not prove that there is anything inaccessible to the human intellect, but only that the steps are not well disposed, or are insufficient, dangerous, and in bad repair in other words, that the method is complicated. It is an undoubted fact that any man can attain any height that he may desire by means of steps that are properly disposed, sufficient in number, solid, and safe.
16. It will be urged, Some men have such weak intellects that it is not possible for them to acquire knowledge. I answer, It is scarcely possible to find a mirror so dulled that it will not reflect images of some kind, or for a tablet to have such a rough surface that nothing can be inscribed on it. Again, if the mirror be soiled by dirt or by spots, it must first be cleaned; if the tablet be rough, it must be polished; both will then perform their functions. In the same way, if teachers take sufficient trouble, men will become polished, and finally all men will understand all things (I stand firmly by my watchword because my fundamental principles prove correct). There is naturally a difference in intellects, and while those who are slow may only be able to attain to one stage of knowledge, the more gifted advance higher and higher, from one object to another, and collect new observations which are of great utility. Finally, though there may be some intellects that do not admit of culture, just as knotty wood is unsuitable for carving, even then my assertion will hold good for men of ordinary capacity, of whom, through God’s grace, there is always a sufficiency. Indeed a man quite wanting in intellect is as rare a phenomenon as one who, from his birth, has lacked his full complement of limbs. For, in truth, blindness, deafness, lameness, and weakness seldom accompany a man from his cradle, but are caused by his own negligence; and thus it is with exceptional weakness of intellect.
17. A further objection is brought forward: With many not the capacity to learn but the inclination is lacking, and to compel these against their will is as unpleasant as it is useless. I answer: There is a story told of a philosopher who had two pupils, of whom one was idle and the other industrious. Both were sent away by their master; for one would not learn, though able to do so, while the other could not, though anxious to acquire knowledge. But how does the matter stand if it be shown that the teacher himself is the reason of the pupil’s aversion to learning? Truly did Aristotle say that all men are born anxious to acquire knowledge, and that this is so we have seen in chapters v. and xi. In practice, however, the tender indulgence of parents hinders the natural tendency of children, and later on frivolous society leads them into idle ways, while the various occupations of city and court life, and the external circumstances which surround them, turn them away from their real inclinations. Thus it comes to pass that they show no desire to investigate what is unknown, and cannot concentrate their thoughts with ease. (For just as the tongue, when permeated with one flavour, judges another with difficulty, so the mind, when occupied with one subject, finds it hard to give its attention to another.) In these cases the external distraction must first be removed; nature will then assert itself with its original vigour, and the desire for knowledge will once more be apparent. But how many of those who undertake to educate the young appreciate the necessity of first teaching them how to acquire knowledge? The turner shapes a block of wood with his axe before he turns it; the blacksmith heats iron before he hammers it; the clothweaver, before he spins his wool, first cleans, washes, cards, and fulls it; the shoemaker, before he sews the shoe, prepares, shapes, and smooths the leather; but who, I ask, lever thinks it necessary that the teacher, in the same way, should make his pupils anxious for information, capable of education, before he begins to place knowledge before them? Teachers almost invariably take their pupils as they find them; they turn them, beat them, card them, comb them, drill them into certain forms, and expect them to become a finished and polished product; and if the result does not come up to their expectations (and I ask you how could it?) they are indignant, angry, and furious. And yet we are surprised that some men shrink and recoil from such a system. Far more is it matter for surprise that any one can endure it at all.
18. This is a suitable place in which to make a few remarks about differences of character. Some men are sharp, others dull; some soft and yielding, others hard and unbending; some eager after knowledge, others more anxious to acquire mechanical skill. From these three pairs of contradictory characters we get in all six distinct divisions.
19. In the first division must be placed those who are sharp-witted, anxious to learn, and easily influenced. These, more than all others, are suited for instruction. There is no need to provide them with what we may term a nutritive diet of knowledge, for, like goodly trees, they grow in wisdom of themselves. Nothing is needed but foresight; for they should not be allowed to hurry on too fast and thus to tire themselves out and wither away before their time.
20. Others are sharp-witted, but inclined to be slow and lazy. These must be urged on.
21. In the third place we have those who are sharp-witted and anxious to learn, but who at the same time are perverse and refractory. These are usually a great source of difficulty in schools, and for the most part are given up in despair. If treated in the right way, however, they frequently develope into the greatest men. A good example of this type is Themistocles, the great Athenian general. As a youth he was very wild, so that his tutor said to him: “My boy, you will not develope into anything mediocre; you will be either of great use or of great harm to your country.” And later on, when people wondered at his strange character, he used to say, “Wild colts make the best horses, if only they are properly trained.” Indeed, this was the case with Bucephalus, the horse of Alexander the Great. For, when Alexander saw that his father Philip was about to give away this unruly animal, which would suffer no rider on his back, he said: “What a magnificent horse these people are spoiling. They are unskilled and do not know how to treat it!” He forthwith took the horse in hand, and with marvellous skill (for he never used blows) he got it into such a condition that not only then but ever afterwards it carried him well, and no horse more noble or more worthy of his great master could be found in the whole world. Plutarch, who tells us this anecdote, remarks: “This story reminds us that many men of good parts are ruined by their teachers, who, in their inability to rule or to guide free men, treat them not as horses but as asses.”
22. In the fourth place we have those who are flexible and anxious to learn, but who at the same time are slow and heavy. These can follow in the footsteps of the last-mentioned. But to render this possible the teacher must meet their weak natures half-way, must lay no heavy burden on them, must not demand anything excessive, but rather have patience, help them, strengthen them, and set them right, that they may not be disheartened. Though such pupils take longer to come to maturity, they will probably last all the better, like fruit that ripens late. And, just as the impression of a seal made in lead lasts a long time, though hard to make, so these men have more stable characters than those who are more gifted, and do not easily forget what they have once learned. At school, therefore, they should be given every opportunity.
23. The fifth type are those who are weak-minded and at the same time lazy and idle. With these also a great improvement can be made, provided they are not obstinate. But great skill and patience are necessary.
24. Finally, we have those whose intellects are weak, and whose dispositions are perverse and wicked as well. These seldom come to any good. But, as it is certain that nature always provides some antidote for pernicious things, and that barren trees can be rendered fruitful if properly transplanted, we ought not to give up all hope, but should see if the perverseness, at least, cannot be combated and got rid of. It is only when this proves impossible that the twisted and knotted piece of wood may be cast aside, since it is useless to attempt to carve a Mercury out of it. “Barren land,” says Cato, “should not be cultivated; nor even once ploughed.” But an intellect of this kind, amenable to no treatment, can scarcely be found in a thousand, and this is a great proof of God’s goodness.
25. The substance of these remarks is in harmony with the following saying of Plutarch: “For the characters of young children, no man is responsible; but it is in our power to make them virtuous by a proper training.” Mark this well; he says “in our power.” For the gardener can unfailingly train a struggling shoot into a tree, by using his skill in transplanting.
26. The four following reasons show that all the young, though of such different dispositions, may be instructed and educated by the same method.
27. Firstly: For all men the goal is the same, namely, knowledge, virtue, and piety.
28. Secondly: All men, though their dispositions may differ, possess the same human nature, and are endowed with the same organs of sense and of reason.
29. Thirdly: The differences of character are caused by nothing more than a superfluity or a lack of some of the elements in the natural harmony, just as bodily diseases are nothing but abnormal states of wetness or dryness, of heat or cold. For example, what is sharpness of intellect but the fineness and rapid motion of the vital spirit in the brain, which passes through the sensory lobes with very great speed, and rapidly apprehends external objects? But if no obstacle be put in the way of this rapid motion, it dissipates the intellect and leaves the brain either weak or sluggish. Hence it is that so many precocious boys either die young or become stupid.
On the other hand, what is stupidity but a clammy viscosity of the humours of the brain, which can only be set in motion by constant suggestion? What are insolence and intractability but an excess of spirit and stubbornness, which must be tempered by discipline? What is slackness but a great lack of spirit which must be made good? Just as, then, the best remedies for bodily diseases are not those which try to put one extreme to flight by another (for this only makes the struggle greater), but those which seek to moderate all extremes, so that there shall not be too little on one side and too much on the other; so the best remedy against the errors of the human mind is a didactic method of such a kind that by its means excess and defect may be neutralised in the natural disposition, and that all the mental principles may be brought into harmony and into a pleasant agreement. Our method, therefore, is intended for intellects in which no element exists in an extreme form (and indeed these are always the most common), so that neither reins may be wanting to restrain active minds (that they may not wear themselves out before their time) nor spurs and goads to urge on the laggards.
30. Finally: Every excess or defect of disposition can be counteracted as long as it is not of old standing. In warfare, recruits are mixed with old soldiers; the weak and the strong, the sluggish and the active, fight under the same standard and obey the same orders as long as the battle continues. But, when the victory is gained, each pursues the enemy as far as he is able, and takes as much booty as he wants. Thus it is in the camp of knowledge; the slow are mixed with the swift, the weak with the quick-witted, the obstinate with the yielding, and are guided by the same precepts and examples as long as guidance is necessary. But, when school-days are over, each one must finish the remainder of his studies with what speed he can.
31. When I talk of admixture of intellects, I refer not so much to the spot where the instruction takes place as to the additional assistance that can be given to the pupil. For instance, if the teacher observe that one boy is cleverer than the rest, he can give him two or three stupid boys to teach; if he perceive one more trustworthy than the others, he may allow him to watch and to control those who have less character. Both will gain great advantage from this, provided that the teacher keep his eye on them, to see that everything is conducted as reason prescribes. But it is now time to have done with preliminaries, and to deal with the real subject of this treatise.