Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan/Series 1/Volume 3/Part 1/Useful Minerals and Metallurgy of the Japanese (1)
USEFUL MINERALS AND METALLURGY
OF THE JAPANESE.
BY
Dr. GEERTS, OF NAGASAKI.
Read before the Asiatic Society of Japan 14th
October 1874.
———o———
The knowledge which the Japanese possess of Mineralogy and Metallurgy, is chiefly given them by the Chinese. It is a fact, that the old civilisation of the Chinese is at least two thousand years older than the Japanese culture. China (and Corea) have influenced largely the scientific, philosophical, technical and religious development of the Japanese. Some few Japanese believe that already before Zin-mu Tenno, (660 B. C.) literature was known in Japan, but this is very improbable, because there are many proofs that the Chinese of the 2nd century before Christ considered the Japanese to be “savages.” It does not matter much what we may think about the descent of the Japanese. We may believe with Von Siebold[1] that several tribes from “Dats” (Tartary) have retreated to Japan; we may take the Japanese with Malte-Brun and others for Autochthones, or Aborigines;[2] we may even adhere to the strange, nearly ridiculous hypothesis of the pious Kaempfer,[3] who carries the Japanese from Babel to Japan; or we may finally think with Thunberg,[4] that the inhabitants of these islands took their origin from the Chinese. So much is at least sure that the Japanese till the time of Zin-mu Tenno consisted of different hunting tribes, which were gradually united and polished by the developed mind of the first emperor. That Zin-mu at least was not an Autochthone’ but from Tartar descent, we think very probable, although this is not proved. From this time the culture of the Japanese comes from China, either directly or through Corea. The time of the first contact of the Japanese with the Chinese lies in darkness. The Japanese chronicles Nippon-o-daï-ichi-ran and Wa-nen-hei speak of a Chinese doctor Jo-fuku, who came to Japan in 219 B. C. together with many other Chinese colonists, and landed at Kumano in the province Kii. Jo-fuku is said to have come to Japan by order of the Chinese emperor Schie Hoang-ti, to seek and find in this country a herb for immortality. There is some doubt as to the truth of this story, which is accounted by Professor Hoffmann as a myth.[5] This however is pretty sure, that in the year 27 B. C. a Corean envoy out of Sinra (old kingdom of Corea) came to Japan, and presented to the Mikado Sui-nin different precious objects. Prince Atogi, a son of a Corean king, brought in 284 A.D. the first knowledge of Chinese literature to Japan,[6] and in the following year (285) a Chinese philosopher Wang-schin (Japanese Wa-ni) was sent out to teach the Chinese language in Japan. The culture of silk was introduced in Japan by Chinese colonists in the year 463. Chinese artisans built in 468 the first two-storied houses in Japan. But it was principally after the introduction of the Buddhist religion that arts and sciences found their way to Japan by many priests and doctors. The Buddhist religion was brought from India to China in 58-75 A.D., spread in 372 to Corea, from which country Buddhist priests brought this faith to Japan in the year 552.[7] At that time numerous artists, artisans, and physicians joined the Buddhist priests in their travels to Japan, whilst the Japanese in the 7th century also commenced to go abroad to learn medicine, the arts and sciences. Thus a Corean priest Kuwan-kin brought in 602 chronological and astronomical works to Japan. Another Corean priest Tan-tsching introduced the manufacture of paper and ink in Japan, which industry was energetically furthered by the famous prince-priest Sho-toku-daï-shi.[8] Until that time the Japanese had written on silk or hemp-tissue. All metallurgical processes, and especially the art of minting, the Japanese also learned from the Chinese. In the year 708 A.D. the first Japanese copper-coin called Wa-do-kai-zen was cast after the model of Chinese cash, which were till that time circulating in some parts of Japan, although in other parts of these islands only a barter-trade existed. This event has been immortalized in Japanese history by the institution of the Wa-do nengo (Japanese copper nengo) (708-714), as the reign of the Mikado Gen-meï is called.
Although gold and silver were known in China from the earliest times, the first Japanese gold was found and melted in 749 A.D., and the first Japanese silver in the year 674. It is a remarkable fact that the discovery of these metals, which were known to the Egyptians, the Chinese and old Greeks, and of which Moses and Homer already speak very distinctly, was not made in Japan at an earlier period.
Thus we see that the art of Metallurgy—although very primitive—was introduced in Japan together with other arts, sciences and the Buddhist religion. Von Siebold has expressed this very view in the following words:—“The Hindoos and Chinese were for the Japanese what the Greeks and Romans were for the west of Europe, the promoters of language, letters, arts, sciences, religion and politics.”
The Metallurgy of the Japanese does not differ much from the Chinese and has, even in the present time, a purely practical, and not the least scientific basis. Chemistry was as unknown to the old Japanese as it was to the Chinese. The latter have still the most extravagant, nay, absurd, ideas of the changes to which matter is liable. By means of a long and patient experience the practical Chinese have originally found out their different melting processes; they have digged their ores and fused their metals from the oldest time, without knowing the rudest elements of geology or chemistry. They do not differ in this respect from the old Celtic, Egyptian and other nations, and Europe, who knew in the most ancient times a rough manner of melting metals, without having the slightest scientific knowledge of it. Chemistry is the youngest of all natural sciences, and even in Europe till the middle of the 18th century (when Lavoisier, Scheele and Priestley founded the quantities period), the most extraordinary and false ideas prevailed about the changes to which matter is liable. But the western nations have largely profited by the discoveries of chemical science in ameliorating their Metallurgical processes, whilst the Chinese and Japanese have made no progress at all in this direction. Their methods are still the same as they have been for many centuries. Hence the melting of metals by these nations stands at present much behind our western methods.
Hitherto the Metallurgy of the Japanese has been deseribed by no author. The classical and doubtless the best work which at any time has been written about Japan—the Nippon Archiv of Von Siebold, was never finished and contains but very little about this subject, whilst Kaempfer’s History of Japan contains only some insignificant notices, which are often wholy erroneous.[9]
Two valuable contributions to our knowledge of Chinese and Japanese Metallurgy are known to us: 1st, Stanislas Julien et Paul Champion’s Industries anciennes et modernes de l’Empire Chinois. Paris, 1869; and 2nd, Dr. Burger’s paper on the copper mines of Japan in the translations of the Batavian Society (Verhandelingen van het Bataafsche genootschap 1836). Burger, the successor of von Siebold, was formerly at Desima in the service of the Dutch Government, and has also contributed very valuable materials to the knowledge of the Fauna and Flora Japonica.
In the following paper will be found partly the results of my own observations, made during five years residence in Japan and partly the translation of Japanese works on this subject. A collection of more than 300 different specimens of minerals, out of different parts of Japan, enables me to give an exact account of many useful minoral products of this country. The Japanese works which I have perused are:—
1.—San-kaï mei-butsu dzu-kuwai. This work was written by Hirase Tatsu-yai and illustrated by Hasegawa Mitsuno. It is published at Osaka and consists of 5 volumes 8 vo. The first volume contains the description and representation of mining and smelting works.
2.—Hon-zo-ko-moku Keï-mo, a large work written by the celebrated Japanese naturalist Ono Kanzan and edited for the second time in 1847 by Ono-Tsune-mori and Te-ken-shi-yeki. It is a kind of commentary and Nomenclator on the famous Chinese work on natural history, called Hon-zo-ko-moku (Chinese.) Pun-tsaou-kang-muh written by the Chinese savant Le-she-chin and published in China in the year 1596. A Japanese edition of this latter work was printed and edited 1714, by Ina-waka-sui. Ranzan’s work gives explanations of Japanese names, synonyms and the places of occurrence in Japan of the numerous natural products, described in the above-named Chinese work. The work is interesting for every one who occupies himself with the natural history of China and Japan. Siebold calls the author Ranzan, who has a name throughout this country, the Linnœus of Japan, and he has justly done so, because Ranzan’s work has sided von Siebold and his coadjutors largely in composing their Flora and Fauna Japonica.
3.—Ko-do-shu-roku or Manual for the Metallurgy of Copper, a small work with illustrations.
We intend to describe the different metals in the following order:
| a. | The metallurgy of Iron, bar-iron and steel, with a a list of the different iron-ores found in this country. |
| b. | The metallurgy of Copper, constitution of Japanese bronzes and a list of the different Copper-ores. |
| c. | The metallurgy of Lead and Silver. |
| d. | The„ metallurgy„ of Quicksilver. |
| e. | The„ metallurgy„ of Gold. |
| f. | The„ Manufacture of Arsenious Acid, with a list of Arsenic-minerals |
| g. | Notices about Zinc, Cobantun, Tin and Antimony. |
| h. | The Gems of the Chinese and Japanese. |
| i. | The„ Manufacture of Lime. |
| k. | The„ Japanese Coal. |
| j. | The„ Porcelain-clay. |
| m. | The„ Salt-manufacture. |
| n. | The„ Manufacture of Alum and Iron-vitriol. |
A.
Iron.
(Cast iron, bar-iron, steel).
| Literature: |
|
There are numerous iron-ores to be found in Japan. Those which are used; smelting iron ore: 1°. Magnetic iron ore, the chief ore of Japanese iron-industry. There are two varieties, one with an iron grey colour and more compact constitution and one with black colour and of more sandy character. The Loadstone, another variety of this ore, is also found in Japan. The Japanese esteem this ore highly and believe rightly that it produces the beat steel for their swords. It is generally known that the good quality of the Swedish iron is chiefly due to this ore, which forms in Sweden only large mountainous masses.
Loadstone has been found in Japan for the first time in the year 713 A.D. in the province of Omi. The Japanese make use of it for manufacturing compass-needles, and as a medicine in disease of the heart. The Japanese name for ordinary magnetic iron-ore is: Gen-seki, Synon. Hoku-shu, Te-riu-sho, Gen-bu-seki. It is found in large quantities in Harima, Hoki, Satsuma, Idzumo, Wakasa, Iwami, Hiuga and many other provinces.
The loadstone is named: Ji-seki or Ji-shaku, Syn. Hari-sui-ishi, Kiu-tetsu-seki, Shinan-seki. An excellent kind of loadstone is found in Sendai, Nambu, Bizen, Okayama, middle quality in Shinano, Kai and an inferior stone in Mino.
2°.—Specular iron-ore (oligist ore or iron glances) having a steel grey colour with a brilliant lustre. The Japanese call this ore also Gin-seki, the name which they give to black maguetic iron-ore. The difference in chemical constitution with the above named ore is not great, both being oxidic ores. We got a good specimen from Hiüga, and were informed that this ore is found also in other provinces, where it is also used in melting iron.
3°.—Brown Hematite (Brauneisenstein of the Germans). It occurs in Japan in different varieties, one of which is a very peculiar ore in spheroïdical grains, closely resembling our Limonite or Pea-iron-ore (Bahnerz). Ordinary brown hematite is found in Idzumo, Mutsu, Hiüga, Satsuma, Shinano, Bizen and other places. The Limonite occurs in Japan, Toza, Satsuma, Idzu and Totomi. The latter ore is also used in medicine as a hæmostaticum and is named: Mu-miyo-i, Mu-mei-i, Syn. Do-shi.
4°.—Red Hematite. An impure variety. (Kotheisenstein). The Japanese red hematite is of an ochry, soft quality. One fine crystallised ore seems not to be found in Japan, because it is imported in very small quality from Europe and used by the Japanese as a much valued hæmostaticum for bloody wounds. The Japanese call it, as we do, ketsu-seki (pron. kis-seki) litt. blood-stone.
The impure, ochry variety is very common in Japan and called Tai-sha-seki, Syn. To-shu, Shu-seki, Shi-shu, Seki-shu. It has much resemblance to our red chalk and is used in Japan chiefly as a medicine and for drawing.
Another still more impure variety, containing some clay, is very soft and powdery. It is quite equal to our red ochre and called Seki-do, Syn. Aka-tsuchi, Ni-tsuchi. It is used as a veterinary medicine.
Tai-sha-seki is found in Mino Akasaka, Owari, Tōtomi Kakekawa, Seki-do occurs at very many places.
5°.—Clay-iron-ore is very common in Japan. Besides the ordinary kind, I have several varieties in my collection. In Japan however it is not used—as in England—in large quantity for the purpose of smelting iron.
Var. A is a kind of tunicated clay-iron-stone (Thonige Spherosiderit), also called in England kidney-form clay-iron-stone. It is called a hydrated sesquioxide, with silicic acid, alumina and some manganic oxide. The kidney form masses have a yellow-brown colour and are often hole. Sometimes they contain petrifactions. It is the same kind of stone, which formerly was used in Europe in pharmacy under the name of Lapis altites. In China and Japan this stone has still a great reputation as a remedy against dysentery. It is named Uyo-riyo, Syn. Tshi-nadango (stone cake), Ko-mochi-ishi, Ha-tai-ishi and is found (according to Ranzan) in Yamato, Satsuma, Chikuzen, Tazima, Noto, Kai, Idzumi, Rechiu, Hinga. Var. B consists of very large masses kidney-form clay iron stone, does however not differ in chemical constitution from the former. It is called by the Japanese: Tai-ichi-uyo-riyo, Syn. Tsubo-ishi (litt. pot-stone), Yoroi-i ishi, Oni-no-tsubate, Fukuro-ishi and is found in Yamato Ikoma-yama, Yamashiro Kitsube-no-yama, Sanaki, Kii, Idzumi.
Var. C is a yellow, ochry clay-iron-stone, very soft and not used for melting. It has a reputation as a medicine against head-ache, hears the names Ran-seki-ō, Syn. Manju-ishi, Dango-ishi, Tsuchi-dango, Dango-wa and is found in Buzen Nakatsu, Awa, Higami-gun, Suwo, Tö, Oshu Tsugaru, Hoki, Noto, Kai Arayi-yama.
6.—Stalactitic Spathic iron-ore (Stalactitischer Sphaerosiderit) is, as far as we know, rare in Japan and seems to be found only in Yamashiro Inare-yama and Yamato-yama. It forms small stalactitic masses of a yellow-brown colour, and bears the Japanese names: Do-inketsu Syn. Do-niu, Kitsune-no-ko-makura (Foxe-pillow), Kuda-ishi (stick-stone), Kitsune-no-rosoku (Foxes candle) and is a much valued old Chinese medicine. It is not used for melting iron. It seems to me that ordinary Spathic iron ore (Spatheisenstein) is alae very rare in Japan, because I did not meet with samples and found no description of this ore in the above named Japanese works.
7.—Iron pyrites. All three varieties, the cubical, dodekahedral and nodular are duly represented in Japan. The quantity of ordinary, dodekahedral pyrites, as well as of copper pyrites, is enormous in the country. There is scarcely any place where iron pyrites is wanting. It does not serve for melting iron, but finds a place in every drug-shop as a Chinese remedy.
A.—Cubical Pyrites occurs in fine crystallized specimens of C. 1 Cub. centin. and is called Ji-nen-do and Ji-zen-do (Natural metal) Syn. Kin-san-reki-shi, Kin-riki-shi, San-sari. It is found in Shinano Take-ishi-mura, Fuji-yama, Suwo Yamaguchi, Bingo Yamaken-gun, Dewa, Satsuma, Kii Kumano, Idzu Nikkai.
B.—Dodekahedral Pyrites is kept by the Japanese for a wholly different use to the former. They distinguish, according to the colour, two kinds, namely Kin-ge-seki, Syn. Ho-kin-ge, Kana-Zako=pyrites with a yellow (gold) colour and Gin-ge-seki, Syn. Ho-gin-ge, Do-gin, Hakodasshi=pyrites with white (silver) colour. Some of the yellow kinds contain a little gold and are used for the extraction of gold, especially in Iwami Kinsan.
The chief places of occurrence are: Toza, Shinano, Mikawa Tæzima, Yamato, Iwami Kinsan etc.
C.—Pyrites in Rounded Nodules of radiated structure, superficially covered with oxide of iron, are called Ja-gan-seki or Ja-wo (Eyes of Snake). Old physicians use it against epilepsy and diseases of the heart.
These are the principal iron ores, which we found in Japan. Only the three first named species of ore are used it Japanese metallurgy.
The Japanese distinguish, as we do, three kinds of iron:
Nama-gane or I-tetsu Cast-iron (pig-iron).
Juku-tetsu or Kera or Kitaye-tetsu Bar-iron (wrought iron.
Hagane or Ko-tetsu Steel.
The extraction of cast iron from the ore in Japan proceeds on the same principle as our blast-furnace method; there exists however a great difference in the form of the furnaces and accessory apparatus. Iron industry of the west has received in the last century a high degree of perfection, by the aid of modern chemistry. In China and Japan very imperfect and rough furnaces are used. No care and no money are spent to erect proper furnaces, and even although lately some Japanese are convinced of the advantage of European ovens, the people do not like to lay out money for the construction of proper working apparatus. This want of care and mistaken economy in the construction of utensils and proper furnaces is the chief fault in all branches of Japanese metal industry. Although there is an abundance of good material, I believe that it nevertheless will be still a very long time before the Japanese iron founders can compete with the prices of western metal. Whilst iron, with the exception of platina, is the least fusible of useful metals, it can easily be comprehended, that the price of this metal is much more costly a this country than it is in Europe. After Japan was opened to foreign trade, we saw therefore bar-iron become a regular article of import, which fact gave a heavy blow to the Japanese iron industry. For the last 15 years the Japanese have made little or no bar-iron (juku-tetsu), because they can buy it cheaper from European merchants, than make it themselves. Cast-iron and in some degree steel are still made in Japan, although the fabrication of steel has lost a great deal by the abolition of the old feudal system, which caused the downfall of the famous Japanese sword. The new weapons of the army are nearly all introduced from Europe. The Japanese believe, however, their steel to be of much better quality than that made in the west; the price of the first is more than the double of the latter.
After the ore has been selected it is piled up in heaps with coal and calcined (roasted) in order to expel the water, carbonic acid, sulphur, etc. This calcination makes the ore more porous and better fitted for the smelting process. This process is done near the places, (mountains) where the ore has been found.
The calcined ore is now smelted in a cylindrical furnace, built up with a few hard stones and fireproof clay. The clay is laid in layers till the wall of the furnace has sufficient thickness. The thick bottoms of this small furnace has a rounded shape, and a little above the bottom two exactly opposite openings in the wall are made for receiving the tubes of the bellows. Besides, there is a third opening near the bottom, which is closed with a clay-stopper and afterwards is opened to collect the fluid metal in the forms. Now the furnace, previously perfectly dried, is filled with a mixture of coarse powdered calcined ore, charcoal and some feldspar, clay or another quartz containing stone. These latter substances are added to act as a flux and to separate the metallic iron from the impurities which are taken by the slag. Sometimes, but not generally coal or coke is used as fuel. When the heat produced by the continuous strong stream of air, pressed into the furnace by means of large Chinese bellows, worked by four to five workmen, has been sufficient to smelt the ore, the iron will gradually run in a liquid state to the bottom of the furnace, and is cast in sand-forms by removing the clay stopper of the lowest opening. The cold metal is sometimes purified by a second smelting in another similar, but smaller furnace, and cast in the desired forms.
The process is—as in our blast furnace system—founded on the reduction of the oxidised ore by means of the carbonic oxide, which is formed, when the carbonic acid, proceeding from the burning of the lowest parts of coal, passes over the red-hot fuel above the burning coal. It is this carbonic oxide which reduces the ore to the metallic state when it comes into contact with it at a red heat. The carbonic oxide is converted by this means into carbonic acid, while the iron is left in the metallic state. The iron and the slag both run to the bottom, where the slag forms a layer above the heavier metal. Old iron is worked by the Japanese in the same manner.
In the province of Satsuma, not far from Kagosima, a European blast-furnace has been erected for some years, which produces, together with other Japanese furnaces at that place, considerable quantities of cast-iron.
The conversion of cast-iron into bar or wrought iron consists in removing as far as possible the carbon, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus and other substances from the cast-iron. This purification rests upon the principle, that when cast-iron is strongly heated in contact with air or oxide of iron, its carbon is evolved in the form of carbonic oxide, while the silicon is converted into silicic acid, which unites with another portion of oxide of iron to form a fusible slag. The Japanese follow the same principle, without however knowing the theory of this puddling process; they mix cast-iron with a little quartz or sand and some iron-scales, heat the whole with charcoal in small furnaces of fire-proof clay—similar to the one already described—and keep the metal during several days (our Japanese author says seven days) in a fluid-state, under continuous blowing with the bellows. We have not seen this process ourselves, because as already stated, the manufacture of bar-iron is now almost abandoned in Japan. The puddling of the iron is continued until the whole has assumed a granular, fluidless appearance. The Japanese seem to know this point exactly and at that time take the metal away, to bring it directly under the hammer, in order to squeeze out the liquid slag and to force the iron-particles into a coherent mass. Japanese wrought-iron is delivered to the trade in square or sometimes round cakes, under the name of juku-tetsu (ripe-iron). This Japanese method has much analogy with our old continental Catalan process, which is still in operation in the Pyrenees. The Japanese, however, make no use of the water-blast-pipe, used in the Catalan process. The bellows used by Japanese are of Chinese origin and already described by many writers on China. Every-one has seen them in Japan in ordinary forges. The metallurgical bellows are much larger (sometimes 5 ft. long, 3 ft. high, 1½ ft. br.) but the construction is the same as the smaller. Bessemer’s process for converting iron into bar-iron is unknown to the Japanese.
According to our Japanese author steel is prepared in the following manner: A certain quantity of pig-iron is mixed with a little bar-iron in a crucible of fireproof clay; the whole is covered with borax (Hosha) and smelted in small furnaces during several (the Japanese author says eleven!) days. The metal being separated from the slag, is hammered strongly and alternately cooled in water or oil. The Japanese author observes that forgeing and tooling is to be done:
for Ordinary Knives |
4 times. |
for„ Guns |
11 times.„ |
for„ Razors |
13 times.„ |
for„ Swords |
15 times.„ |
During the forging of the blades the greatest care should be taken that the anvil and its surroundings are clean, because Japanese armourers believe that the smallest particle of dust, and particularly lead or copper-filings, spoil even the best blades when forged.
The Japanese manner of preparing steel is different from our method. It is known that steel differs from cast-iron in its smaller quantity of combined carbon and from bar-iron by a larger quantity of carbon. Now with our western processes steel is produced: 1st, by extracting carbon from the pig-iron (raw-steel); or 2nd, by combining bar-iron with the requisite amount of carbon (cement-steel). It seems, however, that a third method is probable which is not used by us, but is used in Japan. It consists in smelting pig iron and bar-iron together in certain well defined proportions. The borax dissolves many impurities in the slag. It must be said that chemistry has not yet explained the production of steel insufficiently satisfactory manner. Although steel owes its properties in a great measure to the presence of a just proper quantity of carbon, it is pretty sure that small quantities of silicon, nitrogen, aluminium, titanium and perhaps other elements are not without influence on the quality of the steel. Hence steel-manufacture is still a matter of chance and this is proved also by the excellent Kinds of steel manufactured by many oriental nations who have no knowledge of chemistry.
When steel has been cast by the Japanese in the above-mentioned way, and the different objects have got their shape and are sufficiently forged, it is cemented and tempered, in order to convert the soft steel into hard steel. The old armourers of Japan seem to have taken great care in this operation. The most famous armourers were held in high distinction, as has already been shown by Mr. McClatchie in his interesting paper[10]. They kept their method of cementing secret. The Japanese blades are hard and not very elastic, and belong for this reason to the class of cement-steel. An armourer told me that different blade-forgers cemented their swords in different manners, one of which consisted in finally covering the strongly-hammered blades with a liquid mixture of clay, loam, ashes, charcoal-powder and water. After drying this layer, the whole is exposed to a red heat and the glowing blades are cooled very slowly end gradually in warm water. The swords are then ground on a very precious kind of whetstone, which is extremely rare in Japan, and finally they are polished.
Japanese historians give no exact account of the time when iron and steel were for the first time cash in Japan. They have noted only the first copper, silver and gold melting. On the authority of Von Siebold[11] a certain Prince called Tui shiki, who lived under the reign of the Mikado Sui-nin (29 B.C.–71 A.D.,) has the credit of having invented the forging of the first Japanese sword, but Mr. McClatchie gives us another version in his paper and informs us that the exact date cannot be fixed, because the history of the sword is mixed up so much with mythological relations, at least in those Japanese works which he had perused. According to Mr. McClatchie the Koto Meijin, a Japanese work on the history of the sword, written by Kamada Saburo-daiyu in 1791, tells us first, that a certain Amakuni from Uda in the province of Yamato is believed to have forged the first old divine sword (ken) under the reign of Siu-jin Tenno, (that is in 97–30 B.C.), and 2nd, that another Amakuni from the same place in the same province, it is believed, made the first sword in imitation of the divine blade called “Clustering Clouds,” during the reign of Mon-mu Tenno (697-707 A.D.) It seems to us, too, that the exact time of the first iron-industry cannot be given and that it is certain only that the Japanese have worked their iron-ores from the 10th century.
The principal districts where iron is worked in Japan are, according to Ranzan and others, Idzumo, Bingo, Mutsu, Hiuga, Tazima, Wakasa, Satsuma, Suruga, Shinano, Kai, Tōtomi, Bizen and Bichiu.
The best steel is manufactured in Harima, Hoki, Idsumo and Iwami.
(To be continued.)
- ↑ Siebold. Verhandeling over de afkomst der Japanners. Verh. a. hi. Batav. genootschap. (Transactions of the Batavian Society).
- ↑ Malte-Brun. Précis de la Geographie Universelle. Tome III. p. 485.
- ↑ Kaempfer. History of Japan. 1 Book, Chap. VI.
- ↑ Thunberg. Voyage au Japon, traduit par Langlès. Paris 17-96. Tome II. p. 97.
- ↑ Nippon Archiv VII. p. 107.
- ↑ Nippon Archiv VII. p. 111.
- ↑ Nippon Archiv VII. p. 120, out of the Japanese chronicle Nippon ki.
- ↑ Dr. Hoffmann. Japan’s Bezilge mit der Koraische, Halbinsel und mit Schina, nach Japanischen Quellen bearbeitet; in Nippon Archiv VII. Leiden 1882.
- ↑ For instance, page 81, “Antimony is wanting absolutely” (Antimony ores are very common in this country.) According to Kaempfer “lead is not in Japan,” whilst there is a profusion of lead-ore.
- ↑ Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Nov. 1873.
- ↑ Nippon Archiv: Von den Waffen: page 18.