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TOUKNAY 450 TOWER HILL the Duke of York. The town was dev- astated during the German invasion of 1914. Pop. about 37,000. TOTJRNIQUET, an instrument for compressing the main artery of the thigh or arm, either for the purpose of pre- venting too great a loss of blood in am- putation, or to check dangerous hemor- rhage from accidental wounds or to stop the circulation through an aneurism. For the last purpose special forms of tourniquet are required, which do not compress the whole limb. The common tourniquet consists of three parts — viz. (1) a pad to compress the artery; (2) a strong band which is buckled round the limb; and (3) a bridge-like contrivance over which the band passes, with a screw whose action raises the bridge and consequently tight- ens the band. The credit of the invention of this most useful instrument is usually ascrib- ed to the French surgeon Morel, who, in 1674, used a stick passed beneath a bandage, and turned round so as to twist it up to the requisite degree of tight- ness, as a means of preventing the undue loss of arterial blood in amputations of the limbs. A much improved screw tour- niquet was invented by Petit in 1718, the same in principle as that described above. Many surgeons now use in pref- erence a strong elastic band, wound two or three times round the limb — a method first introduced by Esmarch. TOURS, a town in France, capital of the department of Indre-et-Loire ; on the Loire; 145 miles S. W. of Paris. The Loire is here crossed by two suspension bridges, a railway bridge, and a fine stone bridge 1,423 feet long. Many of the streets are spacious, and there are several historic chateaus in the neigh- borhood. The principal edifice is the cathedral (Tours being an archbishop- ric), flanked by two towers, 205 feet high, a fine building begun in the 12th, completed in the 16th centry. Of the old abbey church of St. Martin of Tours only two towers remain. The modern buildings include the church of St. Jos- eph, the theatre, and the musuem. Manu- factures include silk, cloth, carpets, chem- icals, etc., and there is a large printing and publishing establishment. Tours was known to the Romans by the name of Csesarodunum. In later times it became famous for its silk manufactures, and had a population of 80,000, when the rev- ocation of the edict of Nantes deprived it of nearly half its inhabitants, a blow from which it has never recovered. In 1870 Tours was the seat of the govern- ment of national defense. Pop. about 73,- 000. TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTTJRE, DOM- INIQUE FRANCOIS (surname added for his bravery in once making a breach in the ranks of the enemy), one of the libei'ators of Haiti ; born a slave in 1743 ; joined the negro insurgents in 1791; and in 1795, for his services against the Span- iards, was made by the French Conven- tion general of brigade, in 1797 general of division, and a little later chief of the army of Santo Domingo. Soon after he cleared the British and Spaniards en- tirely out of the island, quickly restored order and prosperity, and about 1800 began to aim at independence of France. Bonaparte having, after the peace of Amiens, proclaimed the re-establishment of slavery in Santo Domingo, Toussaint declined to obey, whereupon General Le Clerc was sent with a strong fleet to compel him. The liberator soon submit- ted, but was treacherously arrested, sent to France, and flung into a damp, dark dungeon at Fort de Joux, near Besangon, where he died after 10 months, April 27, 1803. TOWER, CHARLEMAGNE, an American diplomatist; born in Philadel- phia, Pa., April 17, 1848; was graduated at Harvard University in 1872, and ad- mitted to the bar in 1878. He acquired large business interests and became an ofiicer and director in several corpora- tions; and was identified with the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences and other sim- ilar organizations. In 1897 he was ap- pointed United States minister to Aus- tria-Hungary, and in January, 1899, was made ambassador to Russia. Ambassa- dor to Germany, 1902-1908. He is the author of 'The Marquis de La Fayette in the American Revolution" (2 vols. 1895). TOWER, RALPH WINFRED, an American curator, born in Amherst, Mass., in 1870. He studied at Colby and Brown, and later at Leipzig. He then became demonstrator of anatomy in the medical depai'tment of Harvard Univer- sity, then instructor in chemical phys- iology (1895-1898); assistant professor (1898-1901) ; and assistant professor at Brown University (1901-03). For nine years he was curator of physiology, then, in 1912 he became curator of physiology and anatomy in the Museum of Natural History in New York. He is the author of a "Laboratory Course in Chemical Physiology" (1897), and has written many papers and pamphlets. TOWER HILL, a hill in London, near the famous Tower of London, and the