gations a promise was made to revise the law of separation, a promise only partially redeemed in 1918. Claims for compensa- tion were referred to the Hague Tribunal by an agreement signed July 31 1913 by Great Britain, France and Spain, the only coun- tries which accepted arbitration. The claims, including those of Italy, Belgium and Germany, amounted to 2,000,00x3. By the award given Sept. 5 1920 Portugal was condemned to pay 21,800 to Great Britain and 80,000 to France.
After the promulgation of the law of separation, and the Pope's encyclical of May 23 1911, Jamdudum in Lusitanid, relations be- tween Portugal and the Vatican were broken off, and the Portu- guese Legation at the Vatican was suppressed July 10 1913. The law was extended in Nov. 1913 to the Portuguese colonies, where the discouragement of Portuguese missions later gave rise to serious fears of the denationalization of the colonies through the activity of foreign missionaries. When Paes subsequently be- came president, one of his first acts was to redress some of the grievances suffered under the law of separation, and, by a decree of Dec. 22 1917, banishment imposed on the priests was annulled and the Cardinal Patriarch returned to Lisbon. In May 1918 conversations between the Papal Nuncio and the Portuguese Minister at Madrid resulted in a visit of the former to Portugal and he was received by President Paes, who informed him of the intention of the Government to send a Portuguese representative to the Vatican. Monsignor Locatelli was appointed Papal Nuncio in Portugal in April 1919. Relations with the Vatican were main- tained after President Paes' death, and in 1919, and again in 1920, the Pope wrote Cardinal Mendes Bello and the Portuguese prel- ates congratulating them on the improved religious conditions.
The Royalist Invasions. The main event of Senhor Chagas' premiership was the first Royalist invasion, commanded by Capt. Henrique Mitchell Paiva Couceiro. Small Royalist risings had been suppressed during the summer of 1911, but Capt. Couceiro still threatened the northern frontier. Representations were made by the Republic to the Spanish Government, which was itself suffering from the action of Portuguese Republicans in Spain. The Spanish authorities seized 4 Krupp guns and i ,000 rifles at Orense, and the German steamer " Gemma," with rifles and ammunition, was detained at Corcubi6n. The steamers, " Foam Queen " and " Arizona," with war material, ostensibly bound for Bahia Blanca, were detained by the customs authori- ties of London and Barrow in August. Couceiro crossed the fron- tier on Oct. 3 at the head of about 1,000 men, not a quarter of whom were armed with rifles. He advanced in the direction of Braganza and took the small town of Vinhaes, but evacuated it on Oct. 6 and, after maintaining himself for a fortnight in the hills, recrossed the frontier. A Royalist rising in Oporto, timed to coincide with this invasion, was brought prematurely to a head by Carbonario agents on Sept. 29, and this prevented the north from rising, except in the case of a few isolated villages.
King Manoel and the Pretender Dom Miguel met at Dover on Feb. 6 1912 to concert on common action, and the Royalist cause was strengthened by the great wealth of the Miguelists. On July 7 Couceiro again crossed the frontier, with a slightly larger force, but most of his arms and ammunition had been seized in Belgium and Galicia. The Royalist attacks on Valenca and Chaves failed, and within a week they returned to Spain. Royalist ris- ings in the northern provinces were speedily suppressed, and great excitement prevailed in the south, where the Carbonarios discovered a Royalist plot at Torres Vedras. D. Joao de Almeida and other prisoners-of-war were tried by court-martial and con- fined in the Lisbon Penitenciaria.
The Political Trials. The arrests after the invasions of 1911 and 1912 were very numerous. Special tribunals were set up in Lisbon and Oporto in Jan. 1911 to try cases of political conspiracy, and in July 1912 Parliament voted still more stringent laws of de- fence. All persons suspected of reactionary opinions, religious or political, were in danger. Thousands of innocent persons were summarily arrested without the formulation of any definite charge and were confined for months in subterranean dungeons.
The chief instrument of this widespread system of espionage and terrorism was the organization of the Carbonarios. This
secret society, the Jov. Port. (Young Portugal), founded or re- vived by Senhor Arthur Duarte da Luz e Almeida, forced through the Revolution of 1910 before the politicians were prepared for it. It assumed the functions of an unofficial police force and at times proved itself strong enough to attack the Republican Government and the army. Its members, who carried arms, were Republicans of the most extreme type; many had also joined its ranks in order to gratify some personal dislike or to secure the re- wards given to successful informers. It was thus a body composed of dangerous fanatics. Completely blind to the political embar- rassments which its actions might bring upon the Republic, it arrogated to itself the right of summary arrest. Senhor Chagas estimated that on Oct. 23 1911 there were 2,000 political prisoners awaiting trial, of whom 700 were innocent.
So notorious was the barbarity with which suspects were treated that a committee of prominent British residents was formed to investigate and, if possible, alleviate their condition. Several Portuguese Republican newspapers and prominent Conservative Republicans corroborated the findings of the Brit- ish committee and diplomatic representations followed. But reforms were opposed by the Carbonarios and the Radical Re- publicans, and some of the worst outrages were committed under the weak Government which succeeded that of Senhor Chagas in Nov. 1911, with Dr. Augusto de Vasconcellos as premier, and under the third Coalition ministry formed by Dr. Duarte Leite in July 1912. One of the worst features was the intimidation of justice, the law courts being frequently filled with Carbonarios.
Hopes of improvement vanished when the Government re- signed in Dec. 1912, and, after various attempts on the part of President Arriaga to form a moderate ministry, Dr. Afonso Costa, the Radical leader, came into power in Jan. 1913. In March of that year Adeline, Duchess of Bedford, with expert knowledge of prisons, visited the prisons of Lisbon, and meetings of protest against the treatment of the prisoners, held in London, advocated a general amnesty. Under the pressure of public opinion, the Minister of Justice in Jan. I9T3 introduced a bill modifying the Penitenciaria regime, and in Feb. of that year 600 political pris- oners and common criminals were excused from wearing the convict's hood, a. pardon was granted to 300 prisoners, but the general amnesty was delayed till Feb. 1914.
The situation had become one of growing unrest and strikes were frequent. In April 1913 an attempted ultra-Radical coup d'etat, in which a portion of the army and navy were impli- cated, was quelled and part of the crews of the " Vasco da Gama " and " S. Gabriel " were transported to Angra in the Azores. In June the Government decreed the suppression of the Lisbon Syndicalist Club. In July a movement similar to that of April was marked at Lisbon by attacks on the military barracks and was followed by numerous arrests. In Oct. 130 Republican prisoners were transferred to the fortress of Elvas, and a Mon- archist movement at Lisbon and Oporto led to redoubled Car- bonario activity. The amnesty bill became law on Feb. 22 1914 and in all about 1,300 prisoners (of whom over one-third had not been tried) and 1,500 exiles benefited by it, excluding Paiva Couceira among others. The courts martial, which had been active during two years, were abolished by a decree of Aug. 19.
Dr. Afonso Costa, who gave much of his attention to finance, resigned on Feb. 9 1914, and Dr. Bernardino Machado became premier and was in office when the World War began.
On Dec. 13 1914 Dr. Machado was succeeded in the premier- ship by the Democrat, Senhor Victor Hugo de Azevedo Coutinho, President of the Chamber of Deputies, with a view to holding the elections which were fixed for March 7, but the Government's purpose was prevented by a military movement, and President Arriaga appealed to Gen. Pimenta de Castro to constitute a government representative of a wider body of opinion in the country; he formed a ministry on Jan. 28, 1915. The action of the new Government was conciliatory and had the support of the moderate Republicans led by Dr. Antonio Jose de Almeida; the country's foreign policy remained unchanged, but the activity of the Carbonarios was checked, the so-called Committee of Public Safety abolished and the refractory municipal councils dissolved.
