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IMMACULATE CONCEPTION 195 the mother, in body and sonl, was exempt from the common law of fallen humanity. The controversy within the Roman Catholic church on the immaculate conception was more in regard to the terms of the doctrine and the mode and time of the immaculateness than to the Virgin's freedom from the effects of ori- ginal sin, which for the most part was not denied. The establishment of the feast of the conception witnesses to the fact; as the church could not celebrate a festival in honor of a conception in sin. This festival was celebrated at a very early day in the East, and it is almost impossible to fix the precise date of its intro- duction in the West ; it was probably during the 8th and 9th centuries. In the East there seems to have been no discussion in regard to the observance of this festival. In the West it began to be observed by the devotion of partic- ular churches before the sanction of the apos- tolic see had made it universal. St. Bernard reproved the canons of Lyons because they had established this feast without waiting for the decree of the supreme pontiff. The agitation of the question led to long disputes among theologians, and especially among the Francis- cans and Dominicans; the latter have been ranked among the pronounced opponents of the doctrine. The disagreement was, however, one of terms rather than of doctrine. Thus Thomas Aquinas, who is most eminent among the Dominican theologians, expressly declares the exemption of the Virgin Mary from origi- nal sin: " Talisfuit puritas B. Virginis, qua: peccato originali et actuali immunis full." (Com, in I Liber. Sent., DM. 44, 3.) The objections of St. Bernard also are against the immaculate conception " actively " considered, which is no part of the Roman Catholic dogma. The discussion of the subject in the schools led to repeated declarations in its favor. Duns Scotus in 1307, in a disputation before the university of Paris, maintained the doctrine of the Virgin's immaculateness in its highest sense ; and the whole Franciscan order thence- forward zealously defended it. The university itself in 1387 condemned certain propositions of John de Montesano, a Dominican, in which the doctrine was denied, and in 1497 passed a decree that no one should be admitted to any academic honor who did not bind himself by oath to defend it. In 1439 the council of Basel, during its schismatic period, declared the "belief of the immaculate conception of the Virgin to be conformable to the doctrine and devotion of the church, to the Catholic faith, right reason, and the Holy Scriptures, and to be held by all Catholics." The council of Trent, in its decree concerning original sin, expressly declared that it did not intend to in- clude the immaculate Virgin, and ordered the decrees of Sixtus IV. to be observed. During all the controversy the holy see interfered only occasionally, but these interferences were suc- cessive steps toward the formal definition of the doctrine. Sixtus IV., in the apostolic let- ter entitled Grave nimis, published in 1480, imposes excommunication upon any one who accuses of heresy either the advocates or the opponents of the immaculate conception, while at the same time he condemns all who affirm as the truth the opinion that the Blessed Vir- gin was conceived in sin. He also granted in- dulgence to those who should assist at mass or office on the feast of her conception. Pius V., in the bull 114, Super Spec.ulam, in 1670, pro- hibited the public discussion of the question, renewing also the decree of his predecessor. Paul V. in 1616 forbade any one to affirm by any public act whatever that the Virgin was conceived in sin, while he also prohibited the open condemnation of this opinion. Gregory XV. in 1622 prohibited either the public or private denial of the immaculate conception, allowing no discussion whatever on the sub- ject except to the Dominicans, to whom an especial privilege was reserved. The office and mass of the conception were however made binding upon them as upon all Catholics. In 1661 Alexander VIL, in the constitution Sollicitudo omnium Eccletiarum, declares the opinion that the Virgin was conceived without original sin to be almost universal in the church; therefore he renews the decrees of his predecessors, commanding that they be observed in favor of the feast and cultus of the conception, and moreover deprives of the faculty of teaching or preaching any one who should call into doubt or misinterpret the favor shown to this opinion by asserting anything against it, or even by bringing forward argu- ments against it. After that time the congre- gation of rites repeatedly interposed its man- date in favor of the doctrine. The word im- maculate was added in the office and mass of the conception, and its use made binding upon all priests, even those of the Dominican order. Pius IX. in the early part of his reign sent letters to all patriarchs and bishops, requesting their opinion upon the propriety of defining the doctrine. Answers were given by 620 bishops and archbishops, of whom only four were opposed to the definition on dogmatic grounds, and even these gave testimony that their clergy and people were united in the belief of the doctrine. When replies were received from nearly the whole Catholic epis- copate, as many of the bishops as possible were invited to be present in Rome to assist at the solemn definition of the doctrine. This ceremony took place with great pomp in the basilica of St. Peter, in the presence of more than 300 archbishops, bishops, and prelates, on the feast of the immaculate conception, Dec. 8, 1854. In September, 1857, a monu- ment was inaugurated by the pope at Rome in commemoration of the decree. On this oc- casion he also established the " Archconfrater- nity of the Immaculate Conception," which now has branches in all Catholic countries. In 1618 a military order of the Conception was established in Italy by Duke Ferdinand I. of