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JACOBI JACOBINS 499 his belief that, if he should yield to it, a few successive shocks would kill him. His first works were the philosophical romances Wolde- mar (Flensburg, 1779) and Eduurd All-will's Briefsammlung (Konigsberg, 1781), the former of which reveals his ethical system, making morality a matter of instinctive sentiment, rational intuition, or divine impulse. It was never his purpose to develop any connected system, and his philosophical writings are all brief. The first was Ueber die Lehre des Spi- noza, in Brie/en an Mendelssohn (Breslau, 1785), in which he assails Spinozism as a type of all formal, rationalistic, demonstration-seek- ing systems. His doctrine is more fully devel- oped in his dialogue entitled David Hume uber den Glauben, oder Idealismus und Eealismus (Breslau, 1787). His relation to the Kantian critical philosophy appeared in his essay Ueber das Unternehmendesritu;ismus,die Vernunft eu Ventande zu bringen (1802). His principal works, besides those already mentioned, are Sendscnreiben an Fichte (Hamburg, 1799), and Von den gijttlieJien Dingen und ihrer Offen- barung (Leipsic, 1811), which occasioned a controversy with Schelling. His collected works were published at Leipsic (6 vols., 1812-'24), to which his letters were added (2 vols., 1825-'7). H. Johann Georg, a German poet, brother of the preceding, born in Dussel- dorf, Dec. 2, 1740, died in Freiburg, Baden, Jan. 4, 1814. After studying theology and literature at Gottingen, he was appointed in 1765 professor of philosophy and eloquence at Halle, became soon after intimately associated with Gleim, in 1769 received a canonry at Halberstadt, and devoted himself to poetry till in 1784 he became professor of belles- lettres at Freiburg. His poems are marked especially by grace and purity of diction. His complete works were published at Zurich (7 vols., 1807-'22). III. Maximilian, a German physician, son of F. H. Jacobi, born in Dussel- dorf, April 10, 1775, died at Siegburg, near Bonn, May 18, 1858. He studied at Jena, Gottingen, Edinburgh, and Erfurt, was for a time assistant in a London hospital, and after- ward director of an insane asylum at Salz- burg. He early embraced the views of Pinel and Tuke on the subject of non-restraint, and sought to introduce them throughout Ger- many. About 1820 he was selected to take charge of the insane hospital at Siegburg. He published several essays on the treatment of the insane, and a work on " Construction and Management of Lunatic Hospitals " (1834), and was a frequent contributor to the Allgemeine ZeitscJirift fur Psychiatrie. On the 50th an- niversary of his doctorate (1857) a festival was held in his honor, attended by distinguished men from England and France as well as from every part of Germany. At this festival an association was organized called the Jacobi foundation, for the improvement of physicians, officers, nurses, and attendants in the care of the insane. JACOBI. I. Karl Gnstav Jakob, a German mathematician, born in Potsdam, Dec. 10, 1804, died in Berlin, Feb. 18, 1851. In 1825, on the recommendation of Hegel, he was sent to K6- nigsberg as instructor in mathematics, and in 1827 was appointed professor of mathematics there. In 1842 he made a journey to England, but on his return was obliged by ill health to resign his professorship, and after visiting Italy resided in Berlin. His importance in the his- tory of mathematics is chiefly due to his dis- coveries in the theory of elliptic functions, and his principal work is the Fundamenta Nova Theories Functionum Ellipticarum (Konigs- berg, 1829), besides which he wrote many spe- cial memoirs. Under him, Bessel, and Neu- mann, the university of Konigsberg enjoy- ed a reputation as a school of mathematics surpassed by none in Europe. II. Moritz Her- mann, a German savant resident in Russia, brother of the preceding, born in Potsdam, Sept. 21, 1801, died in St. Petersburg, March 10, 1874. At the age of 28 he went to Russia to seek his fortune, and soon attracted atten- tion by his researches in physics. In 1830 he constructed a short electric telegraph in St. Petersburg, and in 1832 one of 18 miles be- tween two of the imperial residences, on which he made many experiments, and the important discovery that the earth could be used to com- plete the electric circuit. In 1837, simultane- ously with Thomas Spencer of Liverpool, he invented the process of electrotyping; and in 1840 he published Die Galvanoplastik, which gained him admittance into the imperial acad- emy of St. Petersburg. He soon after pro- posed to the czar the formation of a regiment of galvanic sappers, to be trained in the man- agement of electricity. An immense battery was constructed for him, and he received the title of colonel in the galvanic regiment. He published many memoirs on the applications of electro-magnetism in the collections of the academy of St. Petersburg. JACOBINS, the most celebrated of the clubs of the first French revolution. Its origin is traced to a society established a few days after the opening of the states general at Versailles, in May, 1789, by the deputies from Brittany, called the club Breton. On the removal of the constituent assembly from Versailles to Paris, this club established itself there in the old convent of Dominican friars of St. James, or Jacobins, in the rue St. IJonor6, admitted any citizen who was presented by four mem- bers, and assumed the name of societe des amis de la constitution, but was also, from its place of meeting, styled Jacobins. It soon became very numerous, not only deputies, but all who aspired to political influence, seeking admission to it. Every political question and every mo- tion was here debated before being presented to the national assembly ; the most popular orators participated in the debates, and were anxious to secure the favor of the majority; the club became the controlling power of the