Page:The New International Encyclopædia 1st ed. v. 17.djvu/427

BUSSO-TUKKISH WAR. 887 RUST. operate iu the rear of the phice and his .success- ful niovenients remh'red relief impossible. On December 10th Osmaii Pasha made a desperate attempt to break through tlie Kussian lines, hut was forced to surrender. Suleiman Pasha, who had succeeded Mehemet Ali in the command of the Turkish army in the east, was at first suc- cessful, capturing Elena on December 4th. but on Decemlier 12th he suffered a defeat at iJetchka, which drove him from the lield. The fall of Plevna enabled the Kussians to undertake a rapid advance toward Adrianople. (General tiurko en- tered Sofia on January -i, 1878. On January 'Jth Generals Mirski, SkobelelT, and Radetzky cap- tured the Turkish forces in the Shipka Pass. The army of Suleiman Pasha, who attempted to check the Russian advance, was shattered in three da.vs' fighting near Philippopolis, and on .January 20th Adrianople was in the hands of the Ru.ssians. Servia had declared war on December 14, 1877. On January 10, 1878, the Servians took Xish, and on the same dav Antivari fell into the hands of the Montenegrins. In Armenia the Russians had been equally suc- cessful. Four columns crossed the frontier on April 24, 1877, Loris Melikoll" (q.v. ) being iu charge of the campaign. The first, moving on Batum, was driven back; the second stormed Ardahan on Jlay 17th: the third besieged Kars and also advanced on Erzenuu, but was cheeked bv Jlukhtar Pasha, the Turkish commander in Armenia, and retired to Alexandropol : the fourth took Bayazid, but, losing the support of the third,t was forced to abandon it and retreat. Here, as in Europe, the Russians underestimated their op- ponents at the outset. In October the campaign was renewed. JIukhtar Pasha was completely defeated by the Grand Duke Michael at Aladja Dagh on October 1.3th and retreated upon Erze- rum, which he held until after the close of hos- tilities in Europe. Kars fell on Xovember ISth. By the end of January, 1878, the Russians had advanced to the neighborhood of C'onstantino]de, and the Ottoman Empire was at the mercy of the enem.y. On January 31. 1878. an armistice was signed by which the Porte gave up all forti- fied places north of a line drawn from San Stefano. on the Sea of Marmora, to Derkos, on the Black Sea. The Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and the Ottoman Empire was signed March 3. 1878. In the meanwhile, on February 13th, a British fleet had entered the Sea of Mar- mora in order to guard against any intention on tle part of the Russians to enter Constantinople. The Powers, unwilling to accord to Russia the aggrandizement involved iu the Tre.ity of San Stefano. intervened ( England even going so far as to embark a force of Sepoys for service against the Russiaiis), and a congress was called at Ber- lin to revise the treat.y and eft'ect a new settle- ment of the Eastern Question. See Berlin, Con- gress OF. Consult: Oilier, CasseU's Illustrated Hislori/ of the Russo-Turkish War (New York), some- what journalistic. Imt comprehensive; Miiller, Political Histori/ of Recent Times, trans. Peters (ib., 1882), a concise brief sketch; Greene, The Russian Armi/ in Its Canvpainns in Turkey in 1S77-7S (ib.. 1879), with an atlas; Huyshe, The Liheration of Bulqaria (London, 1894) : Hozier, The Russo-Turki'sh War (ib.. 1877-79) : Le Faure, Histoire de la guerre d'Orient, 1877-78 (Paris, 1878); Williams, The Armenian Cam- paiyn (London, 1878) ; Gay, I'lcvita, the Sultan, and the I'orte (ib., 1878). RtrST (AS. rust. OIIG. rost, Gcr. Jfosl ; con- nected with t)Clmreh .Slav, rlizda, Litli. ritdis, Lett, rusa, Lat. ruliiyo, rust, and with tiotli. riiiifs, AS. read, Eng. red, OIIG. rot, Ger. rot, Lat. rufus, ruber, Gk. ipvtfibt, enjthros, f)Ir. ruud, OChurch Slav, riidru. Lith. ri'idas, Skt. rudhira, red). Parasitic fungi (Uredinales, q.y. ), especially injurious to wiieat, oats, uml other cereals, usually appearing as yellow, brown, or black lines and spots on the leaves and stems. The name is often applied with various rjualifi- cations, as white rust, etc., to diseases of other plants, but as eonnnonl,y regarded by botanists it applies only to the Uredine.a-. Nearly all cereals are subject to the attack of rust, and from an economic standpoint this is one of the most serious pests of grain crops. In 1891, a .season especialh' favorable to the rusts, the estimated loss to wheat, barle,y, rye, and oats in Prissia, as stated b.v a commission, was over $100,000,- 000. In Australia, it is said, the loss to the wlieat crop is ten to fifteen million dollars an- nuall,v, and in the United States it is equally great, or even greater, for seldom is a field en- tirely free from it :ind sometimes a considerable portion of the crop is destroyed. As generally understood the most common and destructive species, at least in the United States, are I'nr- cinia graminis and Puccinia ruhigo-vera on wheat, oats, barle.y, and r,ye, and Puccinia coro- nata on oats. Investigations conducted in the United States and Sweden have shown that there are specialized forms of the first two species that occur only upon certain host plants. All of these rusts pass through three stages in their life cycles — uredospore and tcleutospore stages upon cereals and an tecidial stage upon some very dis- similar plant. For Puccinia trraminis the seci- dial stage is upon the barl)erry, for Puccinia ruhigo-vera upon members of the borage famil.v, and for Puccinia coronuta )ipon the buck- thorn (Rhamnus lanccolata) and related spe- cies. The <Tci<lial phase of these rusts, being passed upon ]daiits of little economic value, is not considered as injurious. The uredosijore stage, called red, brown, or yellow rust, is passed upon the leaves and stems of the cereals; the black rust or teleutos])ore is the winter stage, in which the spores are thick-walled and remain in the dead leaves and stubble through the winter. The general facts regarding the life history of all are the same, and that first discovered. I'urcinia graminis of wheat, which was worked out b.v bebary in 1804, will serve as an example. Under normal conditions small cup-like depressions appear in the spring on both surfaces of the barberry leaves. The true cluster cups, as they are called, which appear upon the lower side of the leaves, are crowded with spores, which are blown about by the wind. and. falling upon wheat, germinate and gain entrance into the tissues. Once inside, the m.vcelium develops with the growth of the wheat ami about harvest time a crop of spores is produced. These red rust spores are blown about and produce new rust spots wherever they alight upon a similar plant, caus- ing injur.y by dwarfing the plant and shriveling the grain. Later in the season black lines of spores are produced upon stubble or the leaves of