An Attempt Towards An International Language/Part I

by Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof

PART I.

It is likely that the eyes of the reader will light upon this pamphlet not without a certain amount of distrust, supposing, at first blush, that it treats of an Utopia utterly impossible of realisation; for this reason, I would ask him, for the moment, to set aside any such preconceived idea, and to consider carefully, seriously and without prejudice, the matter of which I intend to treat in the present work.

I need not dilate upon the immense importance for Humanity of the existence of an International language, one that could be adopted by all nations and be the common property of the whole world, without belonging in any way to any existing nationality. It is pitiful to consider the amount of time and labor continually given to the study of foreign languages, and yet, for all our pains, how often does it happen that, when we have crossed the boundaries of our fatherland, we can neither understand those among whom we are thrown, nor make them comprehend what we desire to communicate. How much time, trouble and money are wasted in the translation of the literary work of a nation, and yet how small a portion of its literature has ever been so reproduced or will be, even more or less unfaithfully. But, if there were in existence an International Language, all translations could be made into it, and even works written therein, which would possess, ipso facto, an international character. The impassable wall that separates literatures and peoples would at once crumble into the dust, and all that was written by another nation would be as acceptable as if in our own mother tongue; reading would prove common to all, and with it would advance education, ideals, convictions, tendencies–the whole world would be as one family.

Obliged to economize our leisure in order to pursue perforce the study of several languages, we are not in position to dedicate a sufficient amount of it to any one tongue, so that while on the one side it is rare to know perfectly even one’s native language, so, on the other, no speech can he brought to perfection as it should be. This is the reason why we are so often obliged to appropriate, from foreign sources, words and phrases; if we do not, we run the risk of expressing ourselves inexactly, and even of thinking incorrectly; the relative poverty of each and every language must be taken into account, from which are alien missing the richness and volume desired to be employed in one or another manner. The surest means of remedying this defect seems to me to be simply the possession of only two languages, which would allow an easy mastery, and at the some time each tongue could progress towards the highest perfectioning and development. For speech has been the chief factor and motor in Civilization; by it men have been elevated above the level of the brute; the more a language is perfect, the more accessible is a nation to Progress. Indeed, the difference of languages is one of the most fruitful sources of the dimension and differences among nations, for, of all things that impress a stranger in a foreign land, the language is at once the first and the greatest mark of distinction between him and them; not being able to understand or be understood, we naturally shun the contact of aliens. When we meet, instead of being able to draw instruction from the mutual interchange and comparison of opinions on political and social questions, matured after a long succession of ancestors in their modern homes, as soon as we open our months the first sound we utter shows that we are strangers, the one to the other. Any person who has had the fortune to reside in a town in which he meets citizens of nations often hostile to each other, can easily understand and appreciate the enormous service that could be rendered by an International Language, one that, without entering at all into the inner life of these peoples, could, at least, be made serviceable for usual every-day affairs, in a land inhabited by diverse nationalities, where the official language differs from that of the race over which it bears sway. It seems useless for me to dilate on the vast importance an International Language would hear towards Commerce and Science. He who has pondered carefully upon this question, were it but for once in his whole life, must, of necessity, avow that there could be no sacrifice too great to make if we by so doing could acquire an Universal Language. So, for these reasons, every essay, every attempt in this direction, deserves, feeble though it be, our most serious attention.

The question I now submit to the public is the result of a labor ripened by long years of thought; and, in view of the very great importance of the subject, I trust that the reader will read my pamphlet attentively to the end.

I have no intention of analyzing all the attempts hitherto made towards the creation of an Universal Language, but shall content myself with calling the reader’s attention to the fact that all these authors have striven to create a system of signs wherewith briefly to communicate thought in case of necessity, or have limited themselves to a natural simplification of grammar, or to exchanging words that now exist in living languages by others made up for the occasion, or taken by chance.

The attempts of the first kind were so complicated and so little practicable that they were still-born; those of the second class present some resemblance to a language, but possess no features that could give them the right to be called International; indeed, they seem to have received this name from their inventors from the simple reason that upon the whole habitable globe there exists no spot where even one person dwells with whom communication could be had by means of any of these tongues.

All these attempts are based upon the pleasure that their appearance is likely to cause to the world and upon the unanimous sanction upon which they unhesitatingly rely; but this unanimous sanction is the most difficult of all things to acquire when we take into consideration the utter indifference of the world at large towards these productions of the pen; attempts that do not carry with them any return of profit, immediate and palpable, and which reckon solely upon one’s good will to waste one's time for the benefit of the public. The vast majority of people do not bother about such things, and those who do take any interest do not think it worth their while to learn a language which no one understands except its inventor. “As soon as the whole world, or perhaps some millions of people, take it in hand to learn, why, then, I’ll do the same.” For this reason, appealing to so limited a class, the language finds no adherents, and dies at the hour of its birth. If; notwithstanding these difficulties, a language, say, for example, like Volapük, has obtained a certain number of adherents, it is only because the notion of a universal language is so attractive and so elevating, that it finds always enthusiasts, who, not considering the probability of success, are willing to sacrifice their time in order to contribute towards the realization of so lofty an ideal. But the number of such students must be always limited, for the world, cold and indifferent, will not give up its leisure solely to be understood by a mere handful of people, and this last attempt, like all that have gone before it, is destined to disappear after a time, leaving no fruits behind.

For many years have I pondered over the question of an International Language, but not believing myself to he more capable nor more energetic than my predecesors, whose works had borne no results, for a long time I contented myself with making the matter a subject for my constant reflections. But some happy thoughts, the result of my meditations, encouraged me to continue my labors, and incited me to try if I could not systematically surmount all the obstacles in the road of creating and putting into use a rational universal tongue. I believe I have succeeded, to a greater or less degree, and I now offer to the kindly judgment of my readers, this, the fruit of my persevering labor.

The principal problems necessary to be solved are the following:

1. The language must be extremely easy, so that it can be learned without any difficulty.

2. Every one who learns this language must be able to put himself in condition to be understood by people of different nations, whether the language receive an universal approbation or not; that is to say, that this language must be able to serve at the first onset as a veritable intermediary for international relations.

3. Means must be found to overcome the indifference of the bulk of mankind, and to cause the masses to make use of the language offered as a living tongue and not solely to be used with the aid of a dictionary.

Of all the projects offered to the public at different epochs, and often under the sonorous title of an “Universal Language,” which they in no way deserved, there has not as yet been a single one that undertook to grapple with more than one of these enunciated propositions, nor even in that case has the success been more than partial. Beyond these problems of which I have spoken there are also others in plenty whose resolution is desirable, but not considering them at present as essential I shall not enter into their discussion.

Before I show the manner in which I have dealt with these questions, I must ask the reader to consider their importance and not judge hastily of my method, for the sole reason that perhaps, to him, it appears to be too simple. I say this because I know that the tendency of mankind is to undervalue things that seem simple and easy, and to set store on those whose acquirement has been to them difficult and laborious. Such persons, on seeing so small a work, of such extreme simplicity, on so great a subject, easily comprehended by the whole world, may be inclined to pass it over with contempt or indifference; yet here has lain the greatest difficulty in the undertaking, the attaining of this very simplicity and conciseness, and the transformation of things from the very complicated forms in which they took their origin, into others more simple and more easily comprehensible. To do this, great difficulties have been surmounted.

FIRST PROBLEM.

My solution of the first problem is as follows:

(a) 1 have manipulated the grammar until its forms have reached a simplicity hitherto unheard of, preserving, however, in part, the spirit that pervades the grammars of living tongues, so that its study can be facilitated, and yet that it should in no wise be deprived of clearness, pliability and exactitude. The entire grammar of my language can be learned perfectly in one hour. It can easily be seen how the simplicity of such a grammar will facilitate the study of a language.

(b) I have created rules for the formation of the words, and by this means I have reduced enormously the quantity of words needful to be learnt, yet without depriving the speech of its richness; on the contrary, I make it still more copious than any of the modern tongues, on account of the ease with which from any one word any quantity of others can be formed so as to express every possible shade of thought. This I do by means of prefixes and suffixes, by whose aid, at will, infinite new words can be created, thus doing away with the necessity of learning each word by itself. For convenience’ sake I have given these prefixes and suffixes the signification of independent words, and as such have inserted them in my vocabulary.

Example No. 1.–The prefix “mal” signifies the reverse of the word to which it is attached; for example, if we know that “bona” means good, it follows that “malbona” means bad; so one word instead of two will express the two ideas of goodness and badness; “alta,” high, “malalta,” low; “estimi,” to esteem, “malestimi,” to despise or ill esteem; “dura,” hard, “maldura,” soft; “froida,” cold, “malfroida," warm, etc., etc.

Example No. 2.–The suffix “in” indicates the feminine; thus, “frat,o,” brother, “frat,in,o,” sister; “patr,o,” father, “patr,in,o,” mother, etc, etc.

Example No. 3.–The suffix “il” indicates the instrument for an action; thus, “tranch,i,” to cut, “tranch,il,o," that which cuts, a knife, etc, etc.

I have made a general rule that such words as have already become International (that is the foreign element) do not undergo any change in my language, only in spelling. So there are many words we do not need to learn as we already know them; for example, atom, botany, comedy, disinfect, doctor, emancipate, form, figure, locomotive, monopoly, news, platina, police, telegraph, temperature, theatre, wagon, etc., etc.

By means of these rules and certain inherent properties of my language, its study is extremely simple; with 900 words learned, one has learned it from top to bottom, and these 900 words embrace all the grammatical forms as well as all suffixes and prefixes. With this small supply of words, any one, without any especial talent or capacity, and even without any operation of the intellect, can create, by aid of the rules, all the other words and phrases that are necessary for daily life. Nay, more, these 900 words are so chosen that any one with even the slighest amount of education can learn them with an extreme facility. So the study of this language, rich, harmonious, comprehensible by the Whole world (of which the reason will be shown later on), does not demand, like some other tongues, the devotion of years–indeed, to learn it thoroughly is but the work of a few days.

SECOND PROBLEM.

The second problem I have arranged as follows:

(a) I have introduced a complete disarticulation of ideas into independent words, so that the language comprises, in place of words submitted to grammatical forms, only such as are invariable. Take a book written in this language, and you will find that every word reappears always under the same and only guise, which is exactly that by which it is to be found in the dictionary.

All the different grammatical forms, all the mutual relations of words among themselves, are expressed by the union of invariable words. But as such a construction of languages is entirely foreign to European nations,^[1] and difficult to acquire, I have adapted this disarticulation to accord with their languages so that any one, even one who has not read this manual, or even this preface (not at all indispensable for the study of my language), will find no difference in structure between my invention and his own mother tongue.

For example, let us take the word frat,in,o; this is really composed of three words—frat (brother), in (female), o (that which is or exists), so the literal translation would be “that which is a female brother.” The root word is “frat,” “o” is the termination of substantives in the nominative case, from which arises the word “frato;” to form the feminine the suffix “in” is added to the root and placed before the case ending. The commas^[2] are used to show the manner in which the word has been put together, thus facilitating its being found in the dictionary. So no trouble is given to the learner as far as the disarticulation of words is concerned; he has no notion that what he calls suffix or affix are really independent words of invariable signification, whether at the beginning, end or middle of other words–that each of these particles can be employed independently, either as a root or as a grammatical form. From this it results that everything written in the International Language can be immediately comprehended in every precise shade of meaning (with or without the aid of a dictionary), not only by those who have no preliminary knowledge of its grammar, but even by those who have never heard of its existence.^[3]

For example, suppose I am in England, and, although entirely ignorant of the language, yet am obliged to interrogate some one; I write down the following words:

“Mi ne sci,as kie mi las,is la baston,o,n; chu vi ghi,n ne vid,is?”

I hand this to him with the International Dictionary, and show him the first page, wherein is printed: “All that is written in the International Tongue can be understood by the aid of the vocabulary. When words are joined together to express a single notion, their component particles are separated by a comma;^[2] thus, frat,in,o, although having but one meaning, is composed of three words, each of which is to be sought for separately.”

No doubt at first the person addressed, if he has never heard of my invention, will favor me with a broad stare; then taking the paper on which I have written, he will institute a hunt in the Dictionary with the following results:

Mi	{	mi	I		I
Ne	{	ne	not		not
Sci,as	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	sci	know	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	know
		as	the present indicative in verbs
Kie	{	kie	where		where
Mi	{	mi	I		I
Las,is	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	las	leave	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	left
		is	is the past indicative in verbs
La	{	la	the		the
Baston,o,n	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	baston	stick	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\\\ \ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	stick
		o	indicates a substantive
		n	is the accusative ending
Chu	{	chu	is an interrogative particle		?
Vi	{	vi	you		you
Ghi,n	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	ghi	it	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	it
		n	accusative case
Ne	{	ne	not		not
Vid,is	$\scriptstyle {\left\{{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right.}$	vid	to see	$\scriptstyle {\left.{\begin{matrix}\ \\\ \end{matrix}}\right\}\,}$	seen
		is	the past indicative

and so the Englishman will easily comprehend the remark, I don’t know where I have left the stick; have you not seen it? If he wish to answer, I give him an English-International Vocabulary, at the beginning of which is printed: “If you desire to express anything in the International Language, use this dictionary in which you will look for the words; for the terminations designating the grammatical forms consult the Appendix containing the grammar.” In this supplement the rules are but of a few lines each, and so the finding of the proper grammatical forms will consume no more time than the hunting up of a word in a dictionary.

This matter, apparently so simple, is yet one of prime importance in a practical point of view. It is an evident matter that no one can make himself understood in a foreign language (which he has never studied) even with the help of the very best dictionary; to use a dictionary we must know more or less of the language.

To find a desired word we must know its root, yet in speech and writing almost every word is subject to a grammatical change, after which it has undergone so much variation from its original form that it recalls little or nothing of its pristine condition; often to roots are joined prefixes and suffixes, changing their appearance and signification, so that without a previous knowledge of the language none of those words as they stand can be found in the dictionary, and if found, will either an to give an exact rendering of the phrase, or else an erroneous one.

Take, for example, the phrase I have already given and put it into German: Ich weiss nicht wo ich den Stock gelassen habe; haben Sie ihn nicht gesehen?

Take the dictionary and hunt up the words; this will be the result of your investigations: “I–white–not–where–I–?–story, cane–coldblooded–property–to have–she, they, you–?–not–?” [Here the marks of interrogation stand for grammatical forms not usually to be found in dictionaries.] I lay great stress on the fact of the usual vast size of dictionaries of the most common languages, in which, after hunting for two or three words, one becomes tired; according to the method of disarticulation that I have introduced, my dictionary is very small and portable. Indeed, in most languages, after having found the word in the dictionary, it becomes a question as to which one of its significations is the correct one to be used in the present instance, and the result is almost determined by chance. Even if one could conceive of a grammar of the utmost simplicity, with an unchangeable signification for each and every word, yet it would certainly be the case that for the person to whom you speak or write, to comprehend your meaning, by the aid of a dictionary, he must have a preliminary knowledge of the grammar of the language and be sufficiently versed in its mode of conveying thought, to be able to distinguish the root words from those altered by grammatical forms. What advantage could be derived from such a language would depend upon the number of people conversant with it, and if there were none, its utility would be represented by Zero. For example, if you are in a railway carriage and you want to find out from your neighbor, “How long shall we remain at N?” it seems unnatural to ask him, in order to comprehend you, that he must learn the grammar of your language. In the International Language you can be understood by every one you meet, not only if it be unfamiliar to him, but even if he had never previously heard of its existence. A book written in it can be read by any one without the least preliminary preparation, and without even having read any preface to explain how the vocabulary is to be used; indeed, any person of ordinary education, can read the language at first sight, without even needing a dictionary.

Desiring to write to a Spaniard at Madrid, but not knowing his language, and he being ignorant of yours, you can risk using the International Language, whether it be familiar to him or not, or even if it be totally unheard of; you can do so with the certainty that he cannot possibly fail to comprehend you. The complete dictionary of the words necessary for every-day life, thanks to the method of construction of my language, can be comprised on a small sheet of paper, which can be readily slipped into an ordinary envelope; so there is nothing to do but to write your letter in my language and enclose the vocabulary in Spanish (a matter of a few coppers), and the addressee can certainly make out your letter, for you not only send him a dictionary, but clear and complete instructions how to use it. In it will be found sufficient words for usual purposes, and the method of formation of new words will serve as a model for all others that may be desired; technical and “foreign” words will not appear in the vocabulary, as they can easily be replaced.

(b) Thanks to the construction of the language, I therefore can communicate with any one I choose, the sole inconvenience being that (until the tongue has become generally known) I must await the proces of each phrase being analyzed. In order to obviate this as much as possible, I have chosen my stock of words, not at hazard, nor by creatiion , but have selected words already known to the whole world. Thus such words as are employed indifferently by most civilized peoples I nave retained without change; if they sound differently in different languages I have chosen those already common to two or three of the most important modern European nations, or those that, although they belong only to one language, yet have a diffused currency. Where the sound varies I have endeavored to find one that could be recognized by various peoples. Thus, “proche” may mean differently in several languages; I therefore return to the Latin “proximus” which, more or less altered, appears in the modern tongues and form from it the word “proksim," which can surely be comprehended by every person of a liberal education. In other cases I have taken Latin words bodily, as it has been an almost International tongue for a long period. My only exceptions to this rule have been to avoid kakophony, to simply orthography or to avoid homonyms. I am sure that in corresponding with an European of medium education, ignorant of the International Language, I should certainly not only be understood, but that he would find all he needed in the vocabulary with very little trouble.

THIRD PROBLEM.

I have finished the analysis of the principal properties of my language; I have demonstrated the advantages it presents to those who shall learn it; I have proved that its success in no wise depends upon the interest that society at large may take in it; that it can with justice be called an International Language, even if no one cares to hear it spoken of; that, in fact, it gives to every one who learns it the possibility of being understood by any stranger, of whatever nationality, provided he can read and write. But my language has still another object; to be International does not suffice; it would be Universal; it would like to arrive at that point when it could be spoken fluently by the majority of mankind. To reckon upon the support of the public to reach this end would be to erect an edifice upon a vacillating and fantastic basis; for the public, as a rule, likes that which is already in existence, and is slow to lend a hand to establish any new thing. So I cast about to find out some menus of attaining my object, independently of the “public support.” One method is by an universal suffrage. If every one who reads my book would carefully reflect upon what I have already stated, he could not fail to reach the conclusion that the study of The International Language presents incontestable advantages, and would richly, reward the very little trouble its acquisition would cost him; then could I hope that from the very outset my invention would be equipped with a goodly number of adherents. But I prefer to be prepared for the very worst rather than bolster myself up with false hopes and too optimistic anticipations. I suppose that at first but very few persons will find so marked an advantage from the acquisition of this language that they will be willing to waste over it even one hour of their time; that the great bulk of my readers will give little or no attention to my work, and not readily make up their minds to enter upon its study; some may think it will not pay them for their trouble, others may fear to be considered as “visionaries”–a reproach that, in our days, most people look on as being a disgrace, and of which, more than anything else, they stand in dread. What shall be done then to encourage this vast mass of indifferent and undecided people, to give them an impetus to study this new language?

If our looks could penetrate into the souls of these lukewarm persons, no doubt we should behold the following: that while on general principles there is no one opposed to the introduction of an International Language, but, on the contrary, would be greatly pleased with it, yet each one wants this great change to be effected without the least inconvenience or sacrifice on his part; that all of a sudden he should awaken some fine morning and find the whole wide world speaking this new tongue. Were this to be so, then the most indifferent would haste to master it, because to be deterred by the slight labor of learning a language which possesses so many excellent qualities and is already known by the vast majority of the world, would be but a big piece of childishness.

Desirous of offering the public a work already finished and through which, without the faintest effort or sacrifice on any one’s part, the desired result could be achieved, as above set forth, I have made the following arrangement: The present pamphlet will be sent to all parts of the world, and I only ask that each reader into whose hands it may fall, instead of giving time or money to the furtherance of my project, will take his pen in hand and sign one of the blank forms that will be found at the end of this work. These blanks mean as follows: “I, the subscriber, promise to learn the International Language invented by Dr. Esperanto, if it be shown that ten millions of persons have given publicly the same promise.” On the reverse the subscriber shall Sign clearly his name and address.

If there be any who have objections to urge against the principles of my invention, let them return to me the blank with their views and the word “Kontraŭ” written over its face; if there be those who are willing to learn the Language, independent of others making the same promise, let them return it with the words “sen,kondich,e” (unconditionally) similarly inscribed.

This mere act of signing demands no effort, calls for no sacrifice, and binds to nothing in case the undertaking should fail; nothing, except to learn the language when ten millions of others have learnt it. This is very clearly no sacrifice, but only a very simple action, accelerating the fulfillment of the idea every signature gained is a step towards the realization of one of the highest dreams of humanity, without the slightest discomfort on the part of those who make the promise.

When the number of those who promise reaches ten millions, a book will be issued containing all their names and addresses, and the day after its appearance the problem will have been solved.

Since the mere signing of this blank form, although tending towards the realization of a sublime ideal, demands of the subscriber no sacrifice, moral or material, and in no way troubles or incommodes him, it is hoped that no refusals shall take place. Indeed, under the circumstances, to refuse would not be simply a mere negligence–it would be to commit a real sin against humanity itself, and an intentional hindrance to the development of this lofty ideal. But I hope that, for the honor of mankind, very few people can be found, who, for petty and insufficient reasons, would block the road to an invention so pregnant with fateful results to the entire globe.

If objections exist to the mould in which I have cast the International Language, I trust that I shall be fully apprised of them; it is the duty of all persons, of all ages, conditions, sexes, to contribute thus towards its success, as the filling up of one of my blanks will take but a few seconds of time, and the expense of a letter to me can be but a mere trifle.

For those into whose hands this work may fall, there can be no excuse for a failure to respond to my reasonings, whether by adhesion to my plan, or by contradictory arguments; no one can avail himself by the excuse, “I did not know” of its importance. I therefore respectfully ask that editors shall give my ideas the utmost publicity, and that the general public shall know my claims. ********** Such is the general notion of my invention, and I am far from believing that it is perfect that it cannot be surpassed, amended or improved; but, according to my idea, it is the best form of an International Tongue, and I delayed until I had satisfactorily solved the three problems, before I presented it to the public judgment. I am but a mortal, and may easily fall into error, even an unpardonnble one; I might omit some element of most extreme importance or advantage. I have, therefore, decided, before publishing a complete dictionary, issuing a newspaper, etc, to submit, for the space of one year, my plans to the world at large, in the hope that men of letters would give me their views upon my proposal—sending me in writing their objections, if any, and their suggestions for its amelioration. I shall be very grateful for such action, accepting with gratitude all suggestions, and utilizing such as may not be contradictory to the fundamental principles of my language and the facilities it affords for International relations. After all these suggestions have been pondered over and the last changes made, the Language will then take on its permanent and definite form. But even if these changes do not entirely give satisfaction, it must be remembered that the Language is not entirely finished, but that while the author no longer will have any say in the matter, an Academy, yet to be constituted will have plenary powers. * * *

I now confide to the kindly disposed public this labor that has cost me so much thought, time and trouble, in the hope that every one to whom the welfare of humanity is dear, will afford to my project every possible assistance. Each one can tell, according to his surroundings, in what way he can be useful; I only must insist on the utmost utility of a full vote being obtained. Let every one do what he can, and before long we shall have arrived at the idea so long the vision of the learned–a language common to the whole human race.

END OF THE FIRST PART.

1. Speaking Aryan tongues (Tr).
2. In the Vocabulary, etc., the Translator has used the hyphen to disarticulate the words, believing it less liable to lead to error than the comma.
3. The Translator wrote a letter in this language to a young friend who had previously never seen nor heard of it, enclosing the printed vocabulary; he received an answer in the same tongue, with no other aid. This was a crucial test.