Conspectus of the History of Political Parties and the Federal Government/Conspectus of Political History/Washington
Washington’s Administration.
Federal party in power.—At the dissolution of the Confederation the Federal party passed into power and assumed control of the national legislature. The first duty of the party was that of organizing a government based upon the constitution—a task requiring time, patience, and deliberation. Washington, wishing to be a mediator between the political parties, and to show that the administration had only the best wishes of the country at heart, formed his cabinet of men holding opposite views on politics.
Anti-Federals organize.—At the beginning of the administration the Anti-Federals did not constitute an organized opposition to the party in power; but as new measures of the government were advanced, they were taken as issues for drawing party lines and for perfecting and strengthening the ranks of the minority.
Hamilton and Jefferson were members of Washington’s cabinet, and held antagonistic views on the subject of government. Their ideas made their way into Congress, thence among the people, were responded to by nearly equal numbers, and formed, principally, the issues on which the political parties were divided for a number of succeeding administrations. Hamilton was the leader of the Federal party, and Jefferson of the opposition.
Tariff.—During the first session of Congress, a law was passed in which the principle of a protective tariff was recognized by declaring it to be “necessary for the support of government, for the discharge of the debts of the United States, and the encouragement of manufactures, that duties be laid on goods, wares, and merchandise imported.” Hamilton’s report on the subject, made after this law was passed, is regarded by free-traders as most cunningly devised, and by protectionists as containing arguments never answered.
Bill of Rights.—One of the serious objections to the constitution before its ratification was “the absence of a distinct bill of rights, recognizing the fundamental principles of government—the equality of all men, and their rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The objections to the constitution which had been pointed out before its adoption were condensed, in the first session of Congress, and moulded into a bill of rights “consisting of twelve articles, ten of which were afterwards ratified and incorporated as amendments into the constitution.”
State sovereignty.—That the interests of the states should be guarded with jealous care, was the most prominent political idea in the minds of the Anti-Federals under the Confederation. When the new government went into operation their views were not changed, and they continued to base their party upon the leading ideas, that delegated authority should be regarded with distrust, and that the power of a state should be supreme. In these they were strengthened by what appeared to be the monarchical tendencies of the Federals and their broad construction of the constitution.
Financial policy.—Legislation upon finance began in January, 1790, and was in accordance with Hamilton’s financial policy. It embraced considerations on debts, internal revenue, and a United States bank. The Federal measures on these subjects caused the Anti-Federals to complete their organization in opposition to the administration, and added to their ranks a number of Federals, among whom was James Madison, who had done more than any other man, besides Hamilton, to effect the adoption of the constitution.
The debts occasioned legislation on the Funding act, providing for the funding of the national debt, and on the Assumption bill, providing for the assumption, by the Union, of the debts of the states. The opposition to the first was not very great, but the Assumption bill was passed only by a compromise which allowed “the new capital” to be located on the Potomac instead of on the Susquehanna. The bill elicited a memorial from the Virginia assembly, petitioning that the measure be repealed to prevent a change in the form of the national government.
Internal revenue.—The excise law imposed a tax on spirituous liquors distilled in the country. The opposition to the law was not limited to a war of words; four counties in western Pennsylvania rose in insurrection, defied the authority of the government, tarred and feathered a tax collector, robbed him of his horse, and committed other acts of violence.
Militia.—After three years of disobedience to law, the administration determined “to try whether the new constitution had really created a government;” accordingly, fifteen thousand militia were called out (1794), and their appearance in the rebellious districts restored the insurgents to order. When the militia was called for, “vials of gall,” by the Anti-Federals, were poured out on Hamilton, who had advised the measure; they, calling him a despot and a usurper, prophesied that the militia would not obey orders; that civil war would ensue; and that the insurgent counties would secede from the Union.
National bank.—A bill establishing a national bank passed Congress in 1791, and was signed by the president after Hamilton and Knox had decided that it was constitutional, and Jefferson and Randolph had expressed a contrary opinion. In their opposition to the bill, the minority argued that the establishment of a national bank was not constitutional, because a bank was not authorized by the constitution; that it was not necessary to the exercise of any powers expressly given by that instrument; that it would prevent the states from maintaining banks; and would give to the place where the bank was located an advantage over all others.
Slavery.—While the financial questions were before the country, a Pennsylvania society petitioned Congress to use its powers to stop the traffic in slaves. On the question of referring the petition to a committee, there ensued, sectional in character rather than political, a violent debate on the question of slavery, the first of the kind in the history of the Union. The discussion took a wide range, and, before closing, the threat of civil war was heard. In 1793 a fugitive slave law was enacted.
Republican party.—After the ten amendments to the constitution had been ratified, the objections of the minority to that instrument were soon entirely withdrawn. This, with the growing popularity of the constitution, caused Jefferson and his friends to reject, as inappropriate, the name of Anti-Federal, and assume the title of Democratic-Republican; for they claimed to be the true friends of republican government instead of their opponents, whom they accused of hostility to popular institutions. Accordingly, after 1791, the organization was known as the Republican party, the name “Democratic” being generally dropped, owing to the charges concerning
Democrats.—The party in power claimed to be Federal Republicans, and when they were accused of being monarchists and enemies of free institutions, they repelled the charge, and “stigmatized the Republicans as Democrats, an appellation assumed by the ferocious Jacobins who had so lately filled France with frenzy, terror, and bloodshed.” The name being affixed as a reproach, was not at first adopted.
Election of 1792.—Washington wished to retire to private life at the close of his first term, but being convinced that a majority of the people desired his continuance in office, he consented a candidate, and was re-elected by a unanimous vote. Mr. Adams was chosen a second time for Vice-President.
France.—“The French Revolution was at first hailed with delight by both parties in the United States;” but as the revolutionists grew bold in excess, sympathy was withdrawn from them by the Federals, and increased for them by the Anti-Federals, whose favoritism in this direction continued more than two decades.
Foreign policy.—So popular did the course of the revolutionists become in the United States that citizens were desirous to aid France in her war against England. To avert this danger, Washington, (April 22, 1793,) issued his celebrated proclamation of neutrality, by which the United States were enjoined to keep free from complications with foreign nations. This defined the foreign policy of the government, and was attacked by the Republican press with such unwonted vigor that Hamilton entered the lists for the administration. Jefferson said the proclamation wounded popular feelings and national honor. The agitation closed at the recall of Genet, the French minister, whose conduct was resented by the government; but France, in 1797, appeared a second time as a disturbing element in politics, in her efforts to draw the United States into a war against England. The difficulties which began at that time were not settled till the next administration.
England.—In November, 1793, the English order in council forbade the commerce of foreign nations with the colonies of France. This was unfriendly to the United States; Congress voted an embargo of thirty days, and attempted legislation which would have rendered war with England almost inevitable. Washington sent Chief-Justice Jay as minister extraordinary to England, that he might effect a treaty of reconciliation between the two countries. The treaty was prepared and presented to the Senate for ratification. It was the signal for a political contest which Washington regarded as the most serious crisis of his administration. The Federals advocated the ratification of the treaty. The Republicans “branded the Federalists as the British party,” and charged them with sacrificing the most sacred dictates of national honor. The contest closed when the treaty was ratified.
Election of 1796.—Washington’s Farewell Address, issued in August of this year, assured the people that he would now retire from public life. There was no other man on whom the whole nation could unite. The presidential contest which followed excited an implacable party spirit, and was the first great struggle for ascendency between the parties. The Federalists nominated John Adams for President, and the Republicans, Thomas Jefferson. The result was a victory for each party. Mr. Adams was elected President, and Mr. Jefferson, receiving the next highest number of votes, was chosen Vice-President. The election showed that the Federalists were losing ground and that the Republicans were gaining. The former were weakened by feuds among their leaders, and the latter were strengthening their organization and numbers as they advanced from a party of mere opposition to one with a positive policy.
Retirement of Washington.—The President, while administering the government, had been violently assailed by partisans, but nothing could alienate him from the affections of the people. “He retired, leaving to his successor a system of wise and sound policy successfully inaugurated.”